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巨齿鲨(生物 、动物)详细资料大全

适宜养殖的优良蜘蛛品种： 捕鸟蛛：全身棕色、个体特大，一般长7厘米左右，有的可达10厘米长，产于我国广西、云南及越南、缅甸等国。 中华狼蛛：全身密生黑色、白色及黄色细毛，头胸部、背面棕褐色，中央有一黄棕色纵斑。产于陕西、山东、河南等省。 棒络新妇蛛：该蜘蛛体长3~5厘米，头胸部背面黑褐色，螯肢黑色，触肢黄色，每只雌蛛年繁殖幼蛛800~900只。每400~500只蜘蛛可产1克毒。该蜘蛛产于我国南方各区。 白额巨蟹蛛：该蛛身体宽短而扁平，步足左右伸展能横行，体型较大，为室内常见的蜘蛛之一，每800~1000只蜘蛛可产1克毒。该蜘蛛主要分布在陕西、山东、四川、江西、贵州、云南等省区。世界上大约有4万种蜘蛛 蜘蛛家族 1。档案摘抄蜘蛛，蜂形纲，蜘蛛目。体分头胸部和腹部，两者之间有腹柄。腹部不分节。螯肢多为钳头。头胸部有4对步足，腹部有纺绩器。呼吸器官有书肺一对或两对，或兼有气管。种类甚多。如壁线、圆网蛛、络新妇等。 蜘蛛的血液是青色的。 蜘蛛是肉食性动物。不结网的蜘蛛，如狼蛛、跳蛛、蟹蛛，是游猎捕食。结网蜘蛛如园蛛，用蛛网来捕获昆虫。 蛛丝有粘性，当昆虫粘在网上挣扎时，园蛛就立刻从隐蔽处爬到蛛网上，用螯肢刺破昆虫的身体，将毒液注入昆虫体内，使它麻痹，然后再分泌消化液，将昆虫体内的组织溶解，成为蜘蛛能够吸食的液体食物。 蜘蛛捕食的昆虫大多是害虫，所以，蜘蛛是对人有益的动物。我国已经发现的蜘蛛大约有1000多种。 印度蜘蛛能够18年不进食。 蜘蛛的形体雌雄悬殊甚大。大多数雄蛛都比雌体小，有些种类雌体超过雄体1000—1500倍，所以蜘蛛交配时，如同螳螂那样，雄体常有被雌蛛吃掉的危险，因此雄蛛欲与雌蛛交配时，必须小心翼翼地事先试探雌蛛是否允诺。 2。千奇百怪的蜘蛛蜘蛛是最常见的动物。世界上大约有4万种蜘蛛，除南极洲外，各地都有分布。它们有的外貌奇丑、有的步履蹒跚、有的能走善跳，可谓千奇百怪。 「世界上最小的蜘蛛」巴拿马的热带森林里生活着一种小蜘蛛，体长只有0。8毫米，可能是世界上最小的蜘蛛。 「名称古怪的蜘蛛」在所有动物中，名称最古怪的要算生活在夏威夷的卡乌阿伊岛上某些洞穴里的一种盲蜘蛛了。 这就是无眼大眼蛛。原来，根据各方面的特征它都属于大眼蛛科，只是由于它乔居穴，造成双目失明，空留下“大眼”之称。 「子食母的蜘蛛」红螯蛛就是子食母的一种。红螯蛛的幼蛛附着在母蛛体上啮食母体，母蛛也安静地任其啮食，一夜之后母蛛便被幼蛛啮食而亡。 「猎人蛛」澳大利亚境内有一种世界上最大的蜘蛛。大的约有半斤多重，有八条腿，相貌丑陋，但却是捕捉蚊虫的好手，凡敢于来犯的蚊子无一生还，具有猎人般的本领。同时，猎人蜘含有大量蛋白质，是土著人的上乘佳肴。 「吃鸟的蜘蛛」在南美洲有一种很大的蜘蛛，最大的象鸭蛋那么大，吐的丝又粗又牢，在树林里结网，经常用网捕捉小鸟。 「投掷蜘蛛」在哥伦比亚有种奇特的“投掷蜘蛛”，它不是拉网捕食，而是将自己的丝滚成圆球，当有蛾子时，它偎准确地将粘丝球一掷，击中飞蛾，顺势一拉，成为美食。同时，它还能放出一种蛾类性外激素，来吸引蛾子。 「世界上最毒的蜘蛛」澳大利亚有一种生活在灌木丛或草地上的黑蜘蛛。它身上有一个毒囊，其中有毒性极强的毒汁，人兽或家禽被它咬伤，几分钟内便有丧失生命的危险。 「替人守店的毒蜘蛛」伦敦一家百货商店的老板哈斯维尔，每晚用两只毒蜘蛛替他守店，说来也妙，这种毒蜘蛛把门，盗贼纷纷逃循。几年来，该店从未丢失过任何东西。原来这种毒蜘蛛有二种致命的毒素，一旦被它刺中，轻则剧痛难忍，长期不愈；重者会死亡。 「与植物合谋吃人的蜘蛛」在美洲亚马逊河流域的一些森林或沼泽地带，成群地生活着一种毛蜘蛛。这种蜘蛛喜欢生活在日轮花附近。原来这种花又大又美丽，很能将一些不明真象的人吸引到它的身边。不论人接触到它的花还是叶，它很快将枝叶卷过来将人缠住，这时它向毛蜘蛛发出信号，成群的毛蜘蛛就过来吃人了，吃剩的骨头和肉，腐烂后就成了日轮花的肥料。 「织渔网的蜘蛛」在巴布亚新几内亚，人们用来捕鱼的渔网是由蜘蛛织成的。人们只是把渔网的基底织好，然后将“半成品”挂在两棵树之间，再由蜘蛛去完成大部织网工作。 这里的蜘蛛吐的丝非常坚固结实，织成的渔网，足可以使用两个星期。 3。蛛网的奥秘在希腊神话里，蜘蛛是一位纺织巧匠的化身。的确，蜘蛛称得上是第一流的纺织家，一个蛛网织成，就是数学家也难以挑出什么毛病。 蜘蛛靠它的网而立世。蛛网的粘滞性相当强，小昆虫一旦触及，都是有翅也难逃的。蛛网粘不住蜘蛛自己，这是因为蜘蛛身上有一层润滑剂。蛛网圆心的那一小块地方是蜘蛛休息室，不具粘性，框架及半径线也不粘。蜘蛛一般有6个纺织器，位于肛门附近。每个纺织器都有一个圆锥形的突起，上面有许多开口及导管与丝腺相连，丝腺能产生多种不同的丝线。如果放在显微镜下观察，你会看到那纺织器犹如人们灵巧的手指，它们拉丝、梳理、搓丝为线，如同流水一般。蛛丝是多种腺体的共同产物，它是由许多根不同的、更细的丝混合纺成的。丝线是一种骨蛋白，在体内为液体，排出体外遇到空气立即便硬化为丝。最细的蛛丝直径只有百万分之一英寸。一条能环绕地球一周的蛛丝，只有168克重。在人们的心目中，都以为蛛丝是不堪一击的，其实不然。和蛛丝样粗细的钢丝是没有蛛丝结实的，水下有些蛛网可以网住小鱼。 用高倍电子显微镜扫描，看出一条蛛丝是由两根不同的线绞在一起的：一根干性直线状的，只能拉长20％；另一根粘性螺旋状的，可拉长4倍，复原后不下垂，这便是一根“捆妖索”了。此索周围覆盖一层胶质液体微滴，每一微滴中有一丝团。当昆虫被捕挣扎时碰撞微滴，其中团丝便伸展，增加了线的长度，当然不会被挣断，而是越挣越多，箍得越牢。 就象紧箍圈一样，越箍越紧，任大闹天宫澳孙大圣腾挪变化，直箍得他满地打滚。 蛛网大小不等，形状各异。圆网蛛的网很大，形同车轮；树林间棚蛛的网如棚；球腹蛛的网似笼；水蜘蛛的网象钟；草蜘蛛的网则不啻是一架吊床。有的蜘蛛还能织成套索状的网，它在空中嗖嗖抖动。有的蜘蛛能织出一片密网，安装在草杆上，它在微风中展开，象船上的风帆。南美洲有一种蜘蛛，它的网很小，只有邮票那么大。这种蜘蛛没有守候的耐性，总是用前面的四条腿扯着网，见有合适的过客，随时将网蒙过去。危地马拉有一种蜘蛛，总是几十只集在一起织一张硕大的网，网的色彩和图案都很美丽，当地居民用它作窗帘。 蜘蛛织网时是专心致志的，即便是外面闹翻了天，它仍然有条不紊地在织自己的网。编一个网一般只要25分钟，如果受风力、环境等影响，则可能要多花一两倍的时间。网织成以后，有些老谋深算的蜘蛛还会在网下另加一条保险带。 同其他生物一样，蜘蛛也经历了一个漫长的进化过程。最早的蜘蛛，仅会扯一条独丝，象晒衣绳那样单调。 至今，在南美洲的热带森林里，还有一种“渔翁”蜘蛛呢。它在树林里选择一根又轻又直的枝杆做“钓竿”，在竿端吐出一根长长的蜘蛛丝，下面缠着一团粘液般的乱丝，做成“钓线”和“鱼饵”。当昆虫在森林边飞来飞去觅食时，看到随风飘荡的“鱼饵”，常当作是自己爱吃的食物。无风的时候，“渔翁”蜘蛛会用前脚拉动蜘丝，让“鱼饵”来去摆动，布下“迷魂阵”，引诱昆虫来上钩。当昆虫飞扑到“鱼饵”上，粘液把它逮住，蜘蛛就攀丝而下，把昆虫吞食掉。 虽然大多数蜘蛛有4对眼睛，但视力都很差，只有那些不以张网取食的蜘蛛才能看得比较远些，但也不过30厘米。 正因为这样，所以蜘蛛在爬行时，尾后都拖有一条干丝，这是用来保持同后路联系的，生物学家称它为“导索”。 蛛丝也是蜘蛛的生命线，当它突然受震从空中跌落时，那线便将它吊住。蛛丝也有扩散运行的作用，小蜘蛛们可以放出长长的丝来，让风儿把它们吹送到很远的地方去。 美国科学家最近指出，蛛网也是一种符号语言，这种密码在生物语言中或许是最为神奇的。通过这张网，蜘蛛与邻居聊天，与配偶谈情说爱，以及规劝猎物就范。 蜘蛛是一种神奇的生物，它的网是一种美妙的艺术结晶。 随着科学的发展，蜘蛛学现在已经成了一门学问，许多人都在企望着能透过那层晶莹的蛛丝而看到一些新的自然奥妙。 4。蜘蛛帮助了拿破仑很多蜘蛛织网都选在破晓前进行，因为这时温度最低。蛛丝含有胶状物，很容易吸收水分而失掉粘性，如果空气潮湿，野外的蜘蛛就会敏感地觉出而停止织网。在气温较低而又干燥的条件下结网——蜘蛛的这一特性帮助拿破仑打赢了一场战争。 1794年深秋，拿破仑的军队大举进攻荷兰。荷兰人打开各条河流的水闸，用洪水来阻挡法军。法军正准备撤退时，却接到了“蜘蛛在大量吐丝结网”的报告，拿破仑当机立断，下令就地待命。原来。蜘蛛吐丝结网预示干冷天气即将到来。不久，寒潮果然袭来，河湖冰封、法军踏冰前进，攻陷了荷兰的乌德勒支要塞。 蜘蛛虽曾助过将军们一臂之力，但未加入过军队序列，它在直接参战方面的作用远不及在军事仿生学方面大。

泰晤士河英语怎么说

巨齿鲨（Megalodon），在希腊语中的意思是“大牙齿”。这种鲨鱼平均14米长、40吨重。已发现的巨齿鲨的部分椎骨化石与大白鲨相比大很多，推测它可能超过20米。重达70吨，但至今没有发现完整的脊椎骨骼化石证明其推测。

巨齿鲨也许是地球历史上已发现的咬合力最强的生物之一，最大咬合力推测为20吨，其口腔撕咬力量超过了霸王龙，可以很轻松咬碎鲸鱼的肋骨。生活在1500万年前的晚渐新世到260万年前的早更新世，是其生存年代的海洋顶级掠食者。它们被很多古生物学家誉为地球史上最强悍的生物。

基本介绍 中文学名 ：巨齿鲨 拉丁学名 ：Carcharocles megalodon(Agassiz，1843) 别称 ：大牙鲨 二名法 ：巨牙鲨 界 ：动物界 门 ：脊索动物门(Chordata) 亚门 ：脊索动物亚门 纲 ：软骨鱼纲(Chondrichthyes) 目 ：鼠鲨目(Lamniformes) 科 ：鼠鲨科(Lamnidae) 属 ：Carcharocles 种 ：巨齿鲨 (megalodon) 分布区域 ：世界各地 名称含义 ：希腊文意指巨大的牙齿 长 ：17米 重 ：70吨 食物 ：主要鲸鱼 外形特征,生活习性,分布范围,灭绝理论,进化关系与分类学, 外形特征 因为鲨鱼是软骨鱼类，一般骨骼部位很难留下化石，所以截止2013年只找到它的一些象手掌一样大的三角形牙齿化石和几块脊椎的化石。成年巨齿鲨牙齿一般10-16厘米长，最长超过18厘米，是大白鲨牙齿的好几倍。虽然还没有找到其完整上下颌骨化石，但科学家根据其牙齿的大小同比例放大推算出此种鲨鱼大约有19米左右，体重大约有70吨，张开大口的嘴直径可达2.8米。 生活习性 巨齿鲨可以猎食海中的任何生物，但最喜欢捕食鲸类。其他海洋哺乳动物也是它的盘中餐。成年巨齿鲨在开阔的大洋中猎食，幼年的则生活在离岸较近的海域中。 巨齿鲨在当时无天敌，只有与巨齿鲨同为顶级掠食者的梅尔维尔鲸相匹敌。 分布范围 生活在大概2800万-150万年前的一种巨型鲨鱼，根据各地所发现鲸鱼化石上有巨齿鲨攻击所造成的伤痕来看，此鲨鱼曾经分布很广。巨齿鲨灭绝还是未解之谜。 灭绝理论 有理论指出，由于巨齿鲨主要以鲸类为食，因两极的海水变冷而不适合巨齿鲨生存，鲸鱼因而可以逃避巨齿鲨的捕食，令巨齿鲨缺乏食物而灭绝。 其它解释认为任何对食物链的影响（大约150万年前，地球的水循环出现了变化，上升流减少，由于食物缺乏，大量的鲸类死亡了，多样化的鲸品种变少），都会将以庞大新陈代谢需求的猎食者淘汰。但也有少数科学家指出巨齿鲨仍未灭绝，仍然在现今生存著。有不少人曾报导说发现了巨齿鲨，经检验，都是将姥鲨，鲸鲨等体型大的鲨鱼误看成巨齿鲨。其灭绝原因据猜测是因为大约150万年前，地球的水循环出现了变化，上升流减少，由于食物缺乏，大量的鲸死亡了，多样化的鲸品种变少，巨齿鲨找不到足够的食物，渐渐灭绝了。那时候已经进化出了我们人类，并且我们的祖先已经处在直立人（180万年前进化出来）阶段了，但可惜我们的祖先当时未能发展出制作下海的交通工具，因此在人类与巨齿鲨生存年代有交界的短暂的50万年里，我们的祖先未能目睹巨齿鲨骇人的王者风采。 经过漫长的岁月，像其他生物一样，也有可能逐步进化成别的鲨鱼。某些古生物并非灭绝，而是逐步进化成新的物种，正如原鸡进化成鸡一样。 进化关系与分类学 巨齿鲨的进化与分类在过去的很长一段时间内一直存在争议。不同意见主要集中在两个问题上：1，巨齿鲨牙冠上的锯齿起源于何处；2，巨齿鲨与大白鲨( Carcharodon carcharias )的亲缘关系如何。造成这些争议的一大原因是Ypresian中期的地层在全球范围内比较少见（因为这段时期全球海平面较低），而这段时期恰是提供巨齿鲨起源关键证据的时期。尽管如此，经过近二十年的化石发掘与研究，尤其是哈萨克斯坦西北部以及北美东海岸的化石发掘，我们目前所掌握的证据显示巨齿鲨起源于Otodus 下的某个物种，并且在白垩纪晚期独立于大白鲨的早期物种 Isurus praecursor 单独进化。 最早关于巨齿鲨锯齿来源的假说涉及另外一个已经灭绝的属 Palaeocarcharodon 。这个属目前已知的物种是P. orientalis。假说认为，巨齿鲨的早期物种auriculatus由 P. orientalis 演化而来。形态学上来看，他们的牙齿存在一定的相似之处：1，都存在双边对称的副牙(cusplet)；2，主齿和副牙的切边都长有不整齐的锯齿。然而，更详细的样本分析表明，这两个物种的牙齿存在大量差异显著的地方：1， P. orientalis 的牙冠薄， auriculatus 的牙冠异常厚；2，牙根形态差异很大， P. orientalis 牙根短且薄， auriculatus 牙根长且厚；3， P. orientalis 牙齿长边尺寸在6厘米以内，auriculatus牙齿长边尺寸可以达到9厘米；4， P. orientalis 的dental band 非常窄，几乎在牙冠上看不到，而 auriculatus 的dental band呈深V型，非常宽，这一点与Otodus下的物种很类似；5，显微结构表明 P. orientalis 与 auriculatus 的锯齿形态存在很大的差异。除了形态学差异之外，另一个需要解释的现象来自于化石出现的地层。目前我们在5650万年以后的地层内再未发现过任何 Palaeocarcharodon 的遗迹，而 auriculatus 的遗迹首次出现的时间大概在5100万年。如果auriculatus真的由 P. orientalis 演化而来，需要有证据解释中间大约500万年的样本断层。另一方面，从哈萨克斯坦西北部以及美国马里兰的Ypresian中期（5200-5100万年）地层发掘的样本显示，Otodus和有微弱锯齿的Otodus在同一时期共存过，而在接下来的100万年内， auriculatus 逐渐出现。形态学分析显示，早期的 auriculatus 和Otodus在形态上几乎没有差别，除了是否有锯齿以外。综上，当前证据指向巨齿鲨在5200万年前起源于Otodus的某一分支，而不是 Palaeocarcharodon 。 第二个争议涉及到如何划分巨齿鲨以及大白鲨的进化线上的物种。目前有三种比较重要的学说，第一种（较早）认为，巨齿鲨和大白鲨都应划分在 Carcharodon 属内，因此巨齿鲨学名为 Carcharodon megalodon （此学说进一步认为大白鲨是巨齿鲨的直系后代）；第二种认为巨齿鲨从Otodus分支以后应该独立划分在Carcharocles属内，而大白鲨并非来自Otodus属的物种，而是Isurus属的某个分支；第三种（俄罗斯）观点认为巨齿鲨应该被保留在Otodus属内，大白鲨则起源于Isurus属的某个分支。第二个学说和第三个学说并不存在本质上的不同，因此不做区分，而第一个学说涉及到巨齿鲨和大白鲨的亲缘关系，需要单独讨论。目前有部分学者沿用旧的命名，称巨齿鲨为 Carcharodon megalodon ，但随着我们对大白鲨演化的深入了解（这是另一个非常重要但是非常长的内容，也存在很多分支划分的争议，此处不详解），尤其是对 Carcharodon hubbelli 的研究表明，大白鲨与Isurus hastalis \ xiphodon 存在非常近的亲缘关系，从而间接否定了大白鲨演化自巨齿鲨的假说。因此，更多学者接受巨齿鲨的命名Carcharocles megalodon。值得一提的是，俄罗斯的Zhelesko等人在哈萨克斯坦进行了详细的发掘，对巨齿鲨的进化线做了非常细致的划分，列举如下： ========================================================= Eocene 56 mya ========================================================= Otodus obliquus, Otodus obliquus mugodzharicus, Ypresian 52 mya Otodus aksuaticus, Ypresian 51-49 mya Otodus auriculatus, Otodus auriculatus disauris, Ypresian 49-47.8 mya Otodus auriculatus auriculatus, Lutetian 47.8-41.3 mya Otodus poseidoni, Otodus poseidoni ustyurtensis, Bartoian Otodus poseidoni poseidoni, Bartoian Otodus poseidoni turanensis, Bartoian Otodus sokolovi, Otodus sokolovi caspiensis, Priabonian Otodus sokolovi sokolovi Priabonian Otodus angustidens, Otodus angustidens angustidens, Priabonian ========================================================== Oligocene ========================================================== Otodus angustidens turgidus, Rupelian Otodus subserratus/chubutensis, Chattian Otodus megalodon Miocene- Pliocene 16 - 2.6 mya。

盐湖环境沉积中生烃的物质基础

泰晤士河是英国著名的“母亲”河。发源于英格兰西南部的科茨沃尔德希尔斯，全长346公里，横贯英国首都伦敦与沿河的10多座城市。在英国历史上泰晤士河流域占有举足轻重的地位。那么你知道泰晤士河用英语怎么说吗?下面来学习一下吧。

　 　泰晤士河英语说法1：

the Thames。

泰晤士河英语说法2：

thames river。

　 　泰晤士河英语说法3：

the River Thames。

泰晤士河的相关短语：

泰晤士河南岸学院 South Thames College London。

泰晤士河快艇俱乐部 Thames Yacht Club。

由于处在泰晤士河 being located on the Thames。

正在位于泰晤士河 being located on the Thames。

泰晤士河日落 thames sunset。

泰晤士河游船 Thames Catamaran Cruise ; Thames River Cruise ; thames cruises。

泰晤士河航海俱乐部 Thames Rowing Club。

　 　泰晤士河的英语例句：

1. The Thames was in spate, with flocks of Canada geese speeding downriver.。

泰晤士河河水暴涨，成群的加拿大雁迅速游向下游。

2. Please enclose your remittance, making cheques payable to Thames Valley Technology.。

请附上汇款，支票收款人为泰晤士河谷科技公司。

3. the turgid waters of the Thames。

上涨的泰晤士河水。

4. The ship is now permanently moored on the Thames in London.。

该船现在永久地停泊在伦敦泰晤士河边.。

5. Eels have been on the feed in the Lower Thames.。

鳗鱼在泰晤士河下游寻食.。

6. London stands on the Thames.。

伦敦位于泰晤士河畔.。

7. The Dutch fleet are sailing up the Thames.。

荷兰舰队向泰晤士河上游驶去.。

8. We live near the Thames estuary.。

我们的住处靠近泰晤士河入海口.。

9. Many bridges span the Thames.。

很多桥横亘在泰晤士河上.。

10. We walked along the Thames embankment.。

我们沿着泰晤士河的堤岸散步.。

11. The Thames flows due south from Oxford, through the market town of Abingdon.。

泰晤士河从牛津向正南方向流去，穿过阿宾顿的集镇。

12. He has a full order book for his boat-building yard on the Thames.。

他在泰晤士河边的造船厂订单充足。

13. The traffic clogged the Thames bridges.。

往来的车辆把泰晤士河上的桥都堵死了。

14. They're drilling a new tunnel under the Thames.。

在泰晤士河河床下钻凿一条新隧道.。

15. Cruises on the Thames in London, have become an annual attraction.。

在伦敦泰晤士河上的巡航已成为一年一度的引人注目的事.。

哪位朋友能给些英语介绍希特勒的文章啊

由于盐湖环境特殊的水化学条件和古生态特征，导致了这一环境中发育的生物无论在数量还是在种属上均有其特殊性。传统的观点认为，高盐度的水体不利于生物的生长繁衍，因此，与高盐环境沉积伴随的往往是生物种属单调，数量少，产率低和贫有机质。但实际情况可能与此有很大差异。因为许多实例研究表明盐度最大的时期往往也是干酪根聚集的高峰期，而且在这些岩石中有机质的主体常常是那些由细菌和藻类供给的，并形成富氢的Ⅰ型干酪根(Tissot和Welte，1984)。因此，这里首先让我们回顾一下高盐环境中生物的发育情况。

一、高盐环境中有机质的来源

在人们注意到地质历史时期大的蒸发岩沉积往往与大的油气聚集相伴随这一事实以后，高盐沉积、高盐沉积环境的生物以及高盐环境中有机质保存条件等日益引起人们的关注。而现代高盐环境如太阳湖(Solar Lake)、大盐湖(Great Salt Lake)和死海(Dead Sea)以及萨巴哈环境(Sabkha)等环境则成了人们的研究重点。

高盐沉积环境中的有机质包括环境自生的和外来有机质两大类：自生有机质指盐湖环境的水体中发育的各种生物的遗体及其代谢产物，而外来有机质主要是指由河流和风搬运来的陆源有机质。实际上，高盐环境中发育的生物也相当复杂，主要包括光合作用微生物(Photosynthetic microorganism)如蓝绿藻、绿藻和硅藻，古细菌(archaebacteria)如嗜盐、嗜碱细菌等和光营养细菌(phototropic bactria)如绿细菌、紫硫细菌和非紫硫细菌等。这些生物大多能适应盐度的沉积环境，如蓝细菌能在盐度达 300‰的环境中被发现，(Borowitzkm，1981)，绿藻和硅藻则分别可以在盐度达200%和205%的环境中生存(Ehr-lich，1978a；1978b；Ehrlich和Dor，1994)，光营养细菌能适应盐度介于50‰～270‰的环境(Imhoff和Truper，1977、1981；Imhoff，1981；Kompantseva 和Gorlanko，1984)。一般而言，对于盐度超过100‰的环境而言，蓝细菌、绿藻和硅藻对总生物产率的贡献占据主导地位，而在某些极端高盐环境中，它们则成为唯一的组分(Ehrlich和Dor，1991)。

图7-1 主要蓝绿藻种属相对频率，斜线区域代表在给定盐度范围内一个种属在样品中所占的百分数。

图7-2 主要硅藻的相苛频率，斜线区域代表在给定盐度范围内一个种属在样品中所占的百分数，括号内数字指示含有硅藻的样品数。

值得注意的是不同种属的生物能适应的盐度范围存在很大差异，如图7-1和7-2所示，某些蓝绿藻和硅藻只能在盐度相对较低的环境中生存，且适应的盐度范围较窄，如Chroococcus turgidus，Hydrocoleum lyngbynceum，Rhopalodiagibberula，Diploreis stroemi等，只能在盐度介于50‰～70‰范围内生存；而某些蓝绿藻和硅藻则能在很高的盐度和较宽的盐度范围内生存，如Aphanothece halophytica和Schizothricaenaria能在盐度介于5‰～33‰的范围内生存，Navicula sp.，Amphoracoffeaeformis可能在盐度为50‰～205‰的范围内生存。绿藻中的隐杆藻属则能在盐度介于150‰～200‰的范围发育。由此可以推测，在盐湖盆地发展演化的不同阶段，随着沉积水体与盐度的变化，生物的种群也在发生相应的变化，反映在盐湖环境与其他沉积环境一样，在生物组合上存在很大的复杂性和周期性变化。

由地表径流和风搬运来的陆源有机质是盐湖环境沉积有机质的重要组成之一，尤其是近岸的滨浅湖相沉积中。由于地表径流和风搬运有机质的环境是一种氧化的环境，长距离的搬运往往会使不稳定的陆源有机组分遭受降解破环，而只有那些抗氧化且稳定性高的有机组分才能在湖相沉积中保存下来。在盐湖相沉积中保存下来的主要陆源有机组分是高等植物的花粉以及一些稳定的蜡质成分。盐湖相沉积中常见的具奇碳优势的正构烃分布特征就是陆源有机质生源输入贡献的直接标志。

尽管从生物的种属上看，盐湖环境中生物的种类比较单调，而且主要是些耐盐的单细胞生物(Hites和Andersons，1991)，但盐湖环境中有机组成的复杂性并不逊色于非盐湖环境的沉积。

二、高盐沉积中有机质的丰度

如前所述，高盐沉积环境中并非缺乏生物，但要使高盐沉积成为烃源岩，其中的有机质的含量必须达到一定的标准。那么高盐环境中的沉积是否就一定贫有机质呢?。

大量的研究表明，高盐环境并不缺乏有机质，Nixon(1970)报道卤水中可溶有机质的含量高达100mg/L，而Alviso池塘中三个分别是石膏、岩盐和岩盐-钾盐卤水中溶解有机碳的含量分别为223×10-6，249×10-6和2417×10-6，且呈现出随盐度升高，溶解有机碳含量增加的变化规律(Hite等，1984)。卤水中溶解的有机碳可能是藻和细菌的细胞死亡和自溶作用(Larsen，1980)造成的，或是由蓝绿藻产生的粘液层的分解造成的(Hite和Anderom，1991)。换言之，高盐卤水增加了生物遗体及其代谢产物在其中的自溶解能力，使得卤水中溶解有机质的含量增加。

此外，在现代几个典型的盐湖沉积中，沉积物中有机质较为丰富，如位于西奈海岸的太阳湖(Solar Lake)，其表层水体盐度介于70‰～100‰，最高可达185‰，沉积物主要由纹层状的微生物藻席组成(Friedman等，1973；Gravish，1980；Schidlowiski等，1985)，其中有机碳含量介于2.7%～20.6%之间，孔隙水溶解有机碳含量可达到129～818mg/L，(Lysons等，1982)。大盐湖(Great Salt Lake)是北美最大的盐湖盆地，它可以分成南北两个具有不同生态系统的区域，其中南区因发育稠密的蓝绿藻，绿藻、硅藻和卤水虾而呈现蓝绿色，而北区则聚集有大量的富含胡萝卜素和细菌色素而呈现酒红色(Post，1980)。南支沉积物中有机碳含量介于0.4%～4.9%之间，而且有机碳含量最高值与高盐度时期和湖的低水位时期具有相关关系。而位于墨西哥湾的Orca 盆地，其底层水的盐度高达250‰，但这个盆地中富有机质的沉积是由上覆的大西洋正常盐度水体中富浮游植物有机质的低沉积速率下的产物(Hite 和Anderson，1991)，其高的有机质含量与上覆大西洋水体高的原始有机质产率(Shew，1983)和由高盐度卤水使厌氧细菌活动降低到最低程度有关(Hite 和Anderson，1991)。由此可见，盐湖环境形成的沉积物中不但普遍富含有机质，而且这部分有机质大都是那些富氢的低等生物如各种细菌和一些耐盐的藻类，其有机质类型普遍优于非盐湖相的沉积。值得注意的是，盐水的密度较正常水体的密度高，在盐湖发展演化过程中其中的水体经常发生密度分层现象，上部水体密度低，有利于各种生物的生长发育，而下部高密度的卤水则限制了微生物的活动，有利于有机质的保存，在这样的环境中有利于形成富有机质的沉积。换言之，盐湖环境沉积中生烃的物质基础是相当雄厚的。

美国作家西奥多·德莱塞英文简介

Adolf Hitler

Synopsis

Adolf Hitler, a charismatic, Austrian-born demagogue, rose to power in Germany during the 1920s and early 1930s at a time of social, political, and economic upheaval. Failing to take power by force in 1923, he eventually won power by democratic means. Once in power, he eliminated all opposition and launched an ambitious program of world domination and elimination of the Jews, paralleling ideas he advanced in his book, Mein Kampf. His "1,000 Year Reich" barely lasted 12 years and he died a broken and defeated man. 。

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES。

Students will learn: 。

1. Facts about Hitler's life and the historical events which occurred during that time. 。

2. Hitler's view of history, his theory of race, and his political goals. 。

3. Hitler's use of anti-Semitism to advance his career and to consolidate power. 。

4. How a political leader was able to manipulate the political system in a democracy and obtain autocratic power. 。

CHAPTER CONTENT。

Hitler's Early Life。

Adolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889, the fourth child of Alois Schickelgruber and Klara Hitler in the Austrian town of Braunau. Two of his siblings died from diphtheria when they were children, and one died shortly after birth. Alois was a customs official, illegitimate by birth, who was described by his housemaid as a "very strict but comfortable" man. Young Adolf was showered with love and affection by his mother. 。

When Adolf was three years old, the family moved to Passau, along the Inn River on the German side of the border. A brother, Edmond, was born two years later. The family moved once more in 1895 to the farm community of Hafeld, 30 miles southwest of Linz. Another sister, Paula, was born in 1896, the sixth of the union, supplemented by a half brother and half sister from one of his father's two previous marriages. 。

Following another family move, Adolf lived for six months across from a large Benedictine monastery. The monastery's coat of arms' most salient feature was a swastika. As a youngster, Adolf's dream was to enter the priesthood. While there is anecdotal evidence that Adolf's father regularly beat him during his childhood, it was not unusual for discipline to be enforced in that way during that period. 。

By 1900, Hitler's talents as an artist surfaced. He did well enough in school to be eligible for either the university preparatory "gymnasium" or the technical/scientific Realschule. Because the latter had a course in drawing, Adolf accepted his father's decision to enroll him in the Realschule. He did not do well there. 。

Adolf's father died in 1903 after suffering a pleural hemorrhage. Adolf himself suffered from lung infections, and he quit school at the age of 16, partially the result of ill health and partially the result of poor school work. 。

In 1906, Adolf was permitted to visit Vienna, but he was unable to gain admission to a prestigious art school. His mother developed terminal breast cancer and was treated by Dr. Edward Bloch, a Jewish doctor who served the poor. After an operation and excruciatingly painful and expensive treatments with a dangerous drug, she died on December 21, 1907. 。

Hitler spent six years in Vienna, living on a small legacy from his father and an orphan's pension. Virtually penniless by 1909, he wandered Vienna as a transient, sleeping in bars, flophouses, and shelters for the homeless, including, ironically, those financed by Jewish philanthropists. It was during this period that he developed his prejudices about Jews, his interest in politics, and debating skills. According to John Toland's biography, Adolf Hitler, two of his closest friends at this time were Jewish, and he admired Jewish art dealers and Jewish operatic performers and producers. However, Vienna was a center of anti-Semitism, and the media's portrayal of Jews as scapegoats with stereotyped attributes did not escape Hitler's fascination. 。

In May 1913, Hitler, seeking to avoid military service, left Vienna for Munich, the capital of Bavaria, following a windfall received from an aunt who was dying. In January, the police came to his door bearing a draft notice from the Austrian government. The document threatened a year in prison and a fine if he was found guilty of leaving his native land with the intent of evading conscription. Hitler was arrested on the spot and taken to the Austrian Consulate. Upon reporting to Salzburg for duty, he was found "unfit...too weak...and unable to bear arms." 。

Hitler's World War I Service。

When World War I was touched off by the assassination by a Serb of the heir to the Austrian Empire, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Hitler's passions against foreigners, particularly Slavs, were inflamed. He was caught up in the patriotism of the time, and submitted a petition to enlist in the Bavarian army. 。

After less than two months of training, Hitler's regiment saw its first combat near Ypres, against the British and Belgians. Hitler narrowly escaped death in battle several times, and was eventually awarded two Iron Crosses for bravery. He rose to the rank of lance corporal but no further. In October 1916, he was wounded by an enemy shell and evacuated to a Berlin area hospital. After recovering, and serving a total of four years in the trenches, he was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack in Belgium in October 1918. 。

Communist-inspired insurrections shook Germany while Hitler was recovering from his injuries. Some Jews were leaders of these abortive revolutions, and this inspired hatred of Jews as well as Communists. On November 9th, the Kaiser abdicated and the Socialists gained control of the government. Anarchy was more the rule in the cities. 。

Free Corps

The Free Corps was a paramilitary organization composed of vigilante war veterans who banded together to fight the growing Communist insurgency which was taking over Germany. The Free Corps crushed this insurgency. Its members formed the nucleus of the Nazi "brown-shirts" (S.A.) which served as the Nazi party's army. 。

Weimar Republic。

With the loss of the war, the German monarchy came to an end and a republic was proclaimed. A constitution was written providing for a President with broad political and military power and a parliamentary democracy. A national election was held to elect 423 deputies to the National Assembly. The centrist parties swept to victory. The result was what is known as the Weimar Republic. On June 28, 1919, the German government ratified the Treaty of Versailles. Under the terms of the treaty which ended hostilities in the War, Germany had to pay reparations for all civilian damages caused by the war. Germany also lost her colonies and large portions of German territory. A 30-mile strip on the right bank of the Rhine was demilitarized. Limits were placed on German armaments and military strength. The terms of the treaty were humiliating to most Germans, and condemnation of its terms undermined the government and served as a rallying cry for those who like Hitler believed Germany was ultimately destined for greatness. 。

German Worker's Party。

Soon after the war, Hitler was recruited to join a military intelligence unit, and was assigned to keep tabs on the German Worker's Party. At the time, it was comprised of only a handful of members. It was disorganized and had no program, but its members expressed a right-wing doctrine consonant with Hitler's. He saw this party as a vehicle to reach his political ends. His blossoming hatred of the Jews became part of the organization's political platform. Hitler built up the party, converting it from a de facto discussion group to an actual political party. Advertising for the party's meetings appeared in anti-Semitic newspapers. The turning point of Hitler's mesmerizing oratorical career occurred at one such meeting held on October 16, 1919. Hitler's emotional delivery of an impromptu speech captivated his audience. Through word of mouth, donations poured into the party's coffers, and subsequent mass meetings attracted hundreds of Germans eager to hear the young, forceful and hypnotic leader. 。

With the assistance of party staff, Hitler drafted a party program consisting of twenty-five points. This platform was presented at a public meeting on February 24, 1920, with over 2,000 eager participants. After hecklers were forcibly removed by Hitler supporters armed with rubber truncheons and whips, Hitler electrified the audience with his masterful demagoguery. Jews were the principal target of his diatribe. Among the 25 points were revoking the Versailles Treaty, confiscating war profits, expropriating land without compensation for use by the state, revoking civil rights for Jews, and expelling those Jews who had emigrated into Germany after the war began. 。

The following day, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion were published in the local anti-Semitic newspaper. The false, but alarming accusations reinforced Hitler's anti-Semitism. Soon after, treatment of the Jews was a major theme of Hitler's orations, and the increasing scapegoating of the Jews for inflation, political instability, unemployment, and the humiliation in the war, found a willing audience. Jews were tied to "internationalism" by Hitler. The name of the party was changed to the National Socialist German Worker's party, and the red flag with the swastika was adopted as the party symbol. A local newspaper which appealed to anti-Semites was on the verge of bankruptcy, and Hitler raised funds to purchase it for the party. 。

In January 1923, French and Belgian troops marched into Germany to settle a reparations dispute. Germans resented this occupation, which also had an adverse effect on the economy. Hitler's party benefited by the reaction to this development, and exploited it by holding mass protest rallies despite a ban on such rallies by the local police. 。

The Nazi party began drawing thousands of new members, many of whom were victims of hyper-inflation and found comfort in blaming the Jews for this trouble. The price of an egg, for example, had inflated to 30 million times its original price in just 10 years. Economic upheaval generally breeds political upheaval, and Germany in the 1920s was no exception. 。

The Munich Putsch。

The Bavarian government defied the Weimar Republic, accusing it of being too far left. Hitler endorsed the fall of the Weimar Republic, and declared at a public rally on October 30, 1923 that he was prepared to march on Berlin to rid the government of the Communists and the Jews. On November 8, 1923, Hitler held a rally at a Munich beer hall and proclaimed a revolution. The following day, he led 2,000 armed "brown-shirts" in an attempt to take over the Bavarian government. This putsch was resisted and put down by the police, after more than a dozen were killed in the fighting. Hitler suffered a broken and dislocated arm in the melee, was arrested, and was imprisoned at Landsberg. He received a five-year sentence. 。

Mein Kampf

Hitler served only nine months of his five-year term. While in prison, he wrote the first volume of Mein Kampf. It was partly an autobiographical book (although filled with glorified inaccuracies, self-serving half-truths and outright revisionism) which also detailed his views on the future of the German people. There were several targets of the vicious diatribes in the book, such as democrats, Communists, and internationalists. But he reserved the brunt of his vituperation for the Jews, whom he portrayed as responsible for all of the problems and evils of the world, particularly democracy, Communism, and internationalism, as well as Germany's defeat in the War. Jews were the German nation's true enemy, he wrote. They had no culture of their own, he asserted, but perverted existing cultures such as Germany's with their parasitism. As such, they were not a race, but an anti-race. 。

"[The Jews'] ultimate goal is the denaturalization, the promiscuous bastardization of other peoples, the lowering of the racial level of the highest peoples as well as the domination of his racial mishmash through the extirpation of the folkish intelligentsia and its replacement by the members of his own people," he wrote. On the contrary, the German people were of the highest racial purity and those destined to be the master race according to Hitler. To maintain that purity, it was necessary to avoid intermarriage with subhuman races such as Jews and Slavs. 。

Germany could stop the Jews from conquering the world only by eliminating them. By doing so, Germany could also find Lebensraum, living space, without which the superior German culture would decay. This living space, Hitler continued, would come from conquering Russia (which was under the control of Jewish Marxists, he believed) and the Slavic countries. This empire would be launched after democracy was eliminated and a "FÅhrer" called upon to rebuild the German Reich. 。

A second volume of Mein Kampf was published in 1927. It included a history of the Nazi party to that time and its program, as well as a primer on how to obtain and retain political power, how to use propaganda and terrorism, and how to build a political organization. 。

While Mein Kampf was crudely written and filled with embarrassing tangents and ramblings, it struck a responsive chord among its target those Germans who believed it was their destiny to dominate the world. The book sold over five million copies by the start of World War II. 。

Hitler's Rise to Power。

Once released from prison, Hitler decided to seize power constitutionally rather than by force of arms. Using demagogic oratory, Hitler spoke to scores of mass audiences, calling for the German people to resist the yoke of Jews and Communists, and to create a new empire which would rule the world for 1,000 years. 。

Hitler's Nazi party captured 18% of the popular vote in the 1930 elections. In 1932, Hitler ran for President and won 30% of the vote, forcing the eventual victor, Paul von Hindenburg, into a runoff election. A political deal was made to make Hitler chancellor in exchange for his political support. He was appointed to that office in January 1933. 。

Upon the death of Hindenburg in August 1934, Hitler was the consensus successor. With an improving economy, Hitler claimed credit and consolidated his position as a dictator, having succeeded in eliminating challenges from other political parties and government institutions. The German industrial machine was built up in preparation for war. By 1937, he was comfortable enough to put his master plan, as outlined in Mein Kampf, into effect. Calling his top military aides together at the "FÅhrer Conference" in November 1937, he outlined his plans for world domination. Those who objected to the plan were dismissed. 。

Hitler Launches the War。

Hitler ordered the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland in 1938. Hitler's army invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, sparking France and England to declare war on Germany. A Blitzkrieg (lightning war) of German tanks and infantry swept through most of Western Europe as nation after nation fell to the German war machine. 。

In 1941, Hitler ignored a non-aggression pact he had signed with the Soviet Union in August 1939. Several early victories after the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, were reversed with crushing defeats at Moscow (December 1941) and Stalingrad (winter, 1942-43). The United States entered the war in December 1941. By 1944, the Allies invaded occupied Europe at Normandy Beach on the French coast, German cities were being destroyed by bombing, and Italy, Germany's major ally under the leadership of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, had fallen. 。

Hitler's Last Days。

Several attempts were made on Hitler's life during the war, but none was successful. As the war appeared to be inevitably lost and his hand-picked lieutenants, seeing the futility, defied his orders, he killed himself on April 30, 1945. His long-term mistress and new bride, Eva Braun, joined him in suicide. By that time, one of his chief objectives was achieved with the annihilation of two-thirds of European Jewry. 。

VOCABULARY

Anarchy - The absence of government or law in a society. 。

Demagogue - A person who gains power through impassioned public appeals to the emotions and prejudices of a group by speaking or writing. Free Corps - A paramilitary organization of German World War I veterans who organized to oppose Communist insurgency. 。

Fuhrer - A leader, especially one exercising the absolute power of a tyrant. Hitler's title as leader of the Nazi party, and Chief of the German state. 。

Imperialism - A foreign policy which includes the taking of territory by force or coercion. 。

Lebensraum (Living Space) - A German term indicating the Germans' imperialistic designs on Europe. It also refers to the additional territory deemed necessary to the nation for its economic well-being. 。

Mein Kampf - "My Struggle" in German. A book written by Hitler while in prison which became the standard work of Nazi political doctrine. 。

Nazism - The abbreviation for National Socialist German Worker's Party. The fascist dictatorship under Adolf Hitler in Germany from 1933-1945. 。

Paramilitary - Describing an organization which operates in the style of an army, but in an unofficial capacity, and often in secret, such as the S.A. Putsch - A revolt or uprising. 。

Reparations - Payments made by a defeated country to the victors to make amends for losses suffered. 。

S.A. - The Sturmabteilung (Stormtroopers), also known as the "brown-shirts." It was the Nazi paramilitary arm under the command of Ernst Rîhm. It was active in the Nazi battle for the streets against members of other German political parties and was notorious for its violent and terroristic methods. 。

Swastika - An ancient symbol in the form of a twisted cross which was adopted by the Nazi party as its logo in the 1920s. 。

Third Reich - The Third Empire. It refers to Hitler's name for his German Empire as a successor to the 1st Empire of the Roman Emperors (First Reich) and the Empire of Bismarck in 19th century Germany (Second Reich). 。

Weimar Republic - The German democratic government from 1919-1934 formed after Germany's defeat in World War I. Its capital was located in Berlin.。

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