legality-90

密码学与信息安全的前景如何？正准备考研考这个方向。

China's reform and opening more than 20 years, GDP annual growth rate of 9.5, is the world's fastest-growing countries, the speed of the world economy over the same period the average annual growth rate of 3 times. China has more than Italy, to become the world's sixth largest economy. Per capita income of urban residents in 1978 from 344 yuan to 6280 yuan in 2000, increased 17 times. Per capita income of rural residents in 1978 from 134 yuan to 2,253 yuan in 2000, an increase of 16 times. The last century since the 80's the Chinese society overflowing with positive 。

Atmosphere, the Government hard, those in power to the people for their own happy heart, and its published policies, from agriculture to the responsibility of township enterprises, probably good advice. 。

China, how will the next 20 years? It is full of optimism. Professor Lin Yifu of China's economists believe that the United States "to maintain a long-term growth rate of 3% is quite good, while China's economy can no longer maintain the 30 years of 8% -10 rapid growth. It goes on like this, before the mid-21st century China's economy is entirely possible for the United States as the world's largest, most powerful economy. " 。

Deepen the reform tasks Road 。

China really can be in the 21st century to the early or mid-late back to the peak of its peak it? Wait a minute! Projection implies a more lasting prosperity enjoyed by the Chinese assumption. 。

Why China has enjoyed 20 years of prosperity? Is that we have the courage to deepen their reform. Chinese society has experienced three great pains. 。

The pain is the first time in 1978, the typical signs are buried "two whatevers" and "quadruple" the introduction, we began quietly bid farewell to "personality cult" prelude. 。

The second time the pain was in 1992, Deng Xiaoping's southern tour allows us to address "non-controversial" to bid farewell to the "plan of worship." 。

The pain is the third time in 2001, China became a member of the World Trade Organization and other initiatives will allow us in the self-evident in the bid an emotional farewell to "worship of ownership." We are drifting further and further away, but behind the prosperity of the various factors of instability are also emerging. China has gone through 20 years on a "quadruple" and "controversy" as the tone of the progressive reform, this program has continued for 20 years. 。

China can look forward to another 20 years of prosperity? 。

The problem is that the past 20 years China's political ecology and economic environment has been a drastic change, China needs new thinking, a prosperity and to ensure that China does not abandon the overall thinking away, behind the prosperity of all China instability. Is quietly emerging. The next 20 years, has been impossible to use double like the "livelihood" target, "the people's livelihood," the result of the need to reaffirm and implement the spirit of the Constitution. But, after all, we have outlined the future development of China's economic size of the different conclusions, should not affect our position on China's current stage of development of a clear understanding, from the measure of a country's level of development of key indicators - per capita GDP, China is still in a very low level. GDP per capita in 1999 was only 780 U.S. dollars, ranked No. 140 in the world weep, 2.5% of the United States. China's economy is just emerging from poverty, and its future path of a long way to go. China is a wonderful mixture, if we only see the bustling metropolis, and have not seen wrapped in a thin shell of the modernization of all the discord, it will have a misunderstanding. Can not go back to China, but China's future 20 years go? This scene is almost like "Norwegian Forest" at the end as a deep impression: where are you now? Where I now? 。

Why is important to protect property rights 。

We believe that the next 20 years, China needs to go beyond the goal of quadrupling the people's livelihood such, is bound to continue to improve the livelihood of the people to civil rights. In short, the next 20 years is China, a strategic center must be established that the Government in pursuit of full employment as the center; and strategic means are two basic points: one said, to protect the property rights of citizens; second is to protect citizens the right to education. 。

Why it is necessary to full employment as the center? 。

15-20 China's future, the macroeconomic always running in the face of strong pressure on employment, of course, the inevitable need for the creation of employment-based economic growth. But the reason why economic growth is necessary to abandon the seven or eight of the fragile mentality. If it is simply marked for self-growth, then growth will appear to dry up security Ze and fishing, damage the interests of enterprises and public phenomenon. Only in pursuit of full employment as the goal, to eliminate the most serious social instability. Hundreds of millions of people how to live their jobs? This will be an almost impossible task but it must be completed. 。

Why it is necessary to protect property rights? In fact, the protection of property rights is the protection of civil rights. 。

We can see from the analysis of social classes, workers are unable to control their own income, and state-owned enterprises for several decades old seniority workers have been able to put up with long-term low-wage, it is believed that after aging, there are old-age pension, medical care, housing and other security, or state-owned enterprises and contract workers to be self-evident, only a meager wages disposable parts and a variety of security is not dominant, but by people like the efficiency of this approach is not part of disposable income a low price. 。

Farmers are unable to control their own income, and various kinds of "unreasonable burden of fees and charges" and are collected in their respective high-sounding reasons for free to farmers under the cover of the redistribution of income. 。

Government officials or leaders of state-owned enterprises can not control their own income, said the job was not clear consumer has never been strictly defined in its income. 。

We can also come from the economic analysis of the type. To the private sector as an example, China's private economy from the 20th century and early 80's beginners beginning of the gap in the traditional system and the silence from the mainstream society to grow up in tenacity. China's economy has created a state-owned, funded and private economic situation the three. Trillion in economic output over the private sector, the private sector to absorb laid-off workers in recent years and half, and its promotion of China's economic growth and social stability of the significance of which can not be ignored. However, the legitimacy of private property rights has been to clarify the case? 1988 "People's Republic of China Amendment to the Constitution" clearly "private economy" concept, recognized as "the socialist public economy", the legal status of private economy; in 1997 the party's "big 15" will be non-public economy by added status to the socialist market economy, an important part. Tracing to its source but, public property is sacred, whether it is the inviolability of private property rights have not been the express. 。

The next 20 years, if we think of non-state-owned enterprises and individual property rights can be ignored, then the legality of retroactive property can only be a state-owned, it means that we have the acquiescence or connivance of the Government and the disposal of all social wealth! Therefore, there is no protection of property rights, China does not exist and obligations of ownership of the citizens, but only the existence of "man" and "subjects"; not to protect property rights, government reform does not exist in China's pressure and power, and will only make the state-owned economy continued dependence on non-state-owned economic development. 。

China's economic legislation in the last century 80's and 90's made huge strides in civil law, criminal law, company law, and other aspects of the patent system in place gradually resuming. China's accession to the WTO negotiation process so that the Chinese government to make credible commitments. WTO rules require non-discrimination, judicial independence, a third party arbitration, the rules of the game transparent, stable, fair and credible. The next 20 years, we have ways to protect property rights? I am afraid that the need to reaffirm the dignity of the Constitution, which reaffirmed that all power belongs to the people. In addition to the legislative and the judiciary, the ministries charged with the laws and regulations must be self-authorized self-declared null and void, all kinds of must also go beyond the law repealed. And "Property Law", "Civil Code" and then not be delayed any further. 。

Why the need to safeguard the right to education 。

Inadequate investment in basic education is increasing rural poverty, the root cause of growing unemployment, and even China has not become the source of power. High-quality national team of China's economy as a whole, an absolute wealth is extremely expensive. 。

People are always surprised by Germany, Japan, in the "World War II," the economy to recover quickly, and have neglected the war destroyed while their material wealth, but the quality is still the fact that the National! Big country like China, to let people raise the per capita number of years of education a year, I am afraid to spend 2.5 trillion yuan needs to make the overall level of high school graduates, according to the current investment in education, I am afraid that at least 25 years! 。

As early as 1987, China formulated the Compulsory Education Law, promulgated in 1995 and Education Act, is puzzling since education remains a serious deficit. For a per capita GDP remains at a level in low and middle income countries, education is undoubtedly investment funds should be focused on education and vocational education, which is South Korea, Singapore and other countries of human resources to dramatically improve the standard of the reasons. 。

Our calculations show that in primary and secondary schools and kindergartens, not by the state's financial share of the funding allocated for 69%, 76%, 60%. Input from the education in terms of funding, it shows a tendency to attach importance to primary and secondary education, from primary to higher education in a total of more than 600 million of this funding gap is still obvious. At present, the general secondary school students in education spending per capita is 1400 yuan; per capita funding for primary and secondary school students amounts to roughly 660 million; kindergarten funding is about 166 yuan per capita. In rural areas, especially in poor rural areas a serious shortage of investment in education, basic education is still a lack of reliable funding sources, resulting in the following counties and townships have had various names through a variety of fees to supplement the inadequacy of funding for education. Agricultural taxes and fees is now estimated that about half of the exercise of the Green "education funding" functions. 。

At present, 90% of the bulk of rural households per capita consumption expenditure below 500 yuan in the nine-year compulsory education in the uncontrolled expansion of charges may be more and more severe deprivation of poor families the right to education. One can not but ask: in the end of compulsory education is not just the obligation of parents to do? Government's obligation embodied in the Where? It should be given basic education and vocational education to a greater concern? 。

The next 20 years, how do we protect the right to education? "Education and rejuvenating the country" must "Guoxing education," there are two outlets. 。

First, seek truth from facts, the delineation of the implementation of the poverty line based on real geographical scope of free compulsory education to nine-year compulsory education universal together effectively. Full nine-year compulsory education by the central commitment of senior high school education by the local commitment. Recommendations from the central budget from the central, provincial and local currency, the county at all levels of business value-added tax charged in accordance with the different scales in order to return the host county, the excise duty paid in full and also the ratio of return paid in accordance with the above-mentioned counties, nine-year compulsory education to compensate for funding gap; or from the central budget spending considerable funds, the western provinces and autonomous regions in accordance with the full supplement, the amount of easy to supplement the central provinces, autonomous regions, provinces and regions in the eastern part of the principle of small amount of supplement to increase financial transfer payments, as a special nine-year compulsory education expenditure. Second, education can be the issuance of treasury bonds to raise funds by all into the rural infrastructure and vocational education? Out of the protection of citizens the right to education to solve the unemployment problem to talk about resolving the issue of peasants, it is tantamount to asking for the impossible. 。

The establishment of a social relief system aimed at meeting the people of the urgency 。

The pursuit of full employment in the implementation of the strategy process, we must establish a social security system had a more cautious attitude. In order to buffer the severe employment pressure brought about by factors of social instability, the Government has used the "two guarantees" and "three support lines." 。

The so-called "two guarantees" and one state-owned enterprises to ensure the basic livelihood of laid-off workers, and the other is to ensure the basic livelihood of retired personnel. As for the "three support lines", it refers to the laid-off workers to provide "basic living expenses" for the unemployed, "unemployment insurance", as well as unemployed for more than two years to provide "minimum living benefit." Such a social security system is destined to cover the main cities rather than rural areas, between urban and rural areas is almost bound to lead to higher wall. 。

The so-called "heartless world,dogs; saints heartless to the people as straw dogs", China urgently needs is a clear delineation of the poverty line, generally to the whole society to take care of sick and elderly widows and orphans of the social assistance system. Benefits are not large, to the anxious people may have. I am afraid that the Chinese can not afford a government-run social security system, social relief system, if the funds can be good, with good, used by radical groups of the local emergency, then the next 20 years living in China's social instability on the first shape in a lot of bridge.。

最先提出政治合法性概念的是谁？

信息安全本身包括的范围很大，大到国家军事政治等机密安全，小范围的当然还包括如防范商业企业机密泄露，防范青少年对不良信息的浏览，个人信息的泄露等。网络环境下的信息安全体系是保证信息安全的关键；如果能考上公务员，特别是公安网监的话不错，总的来说就业前景不错。

密码学与信息安全专业大多是跟电脑安全打交道的，要学习的课程有【高等数学、线性代数、计算方法、概率论与数理统计、计算机与算法初步、C++语言程序设计、数据结构与算法、计算机原理与汇编语言、数据库原理、操作系统、大学物理、集合与图论、代数与逻辑、密码学原理、编码理论、信息论基础、信息安全体系结构、软件工程、数字逻辑、计算机网络等】。

高分悬赏~~一篇英文文章，内容是有关服务型政府的构建，《附英文处处》和中文翻译。

最先提出政治合法性概念的是马克斯·韦伯。

把政治合法性作为一种社会学现象来加以研究的首推马克斯·韦伯（1864-1920）。他划分了三种类型的政治合法性基础：传统权威模式，个人魅力权威模式和法理权威模式。

根据韦伯的观点，现代社会主要以法理型权威为特点，其合法性基础来自于人们对正式的合理合法的制度的尊重。

新马克思主义理论家进一步发展了韦伯的思想，他们的研究结论是，资本主义社会形成了一种机制，通过扩大民主和社会改革，形成了“同意”或社会公认的原则，从而抑制了阶级对抗。

扩展资料

马克斯·韦伯的政治社会学成就：

韦伯提出了三种正式的政治支配和权威的形式：魅力型支配（家族和宗教）、传统权威（宗主、父权、封建制度）、以及官僚型支配（现代的法律和国家、官僚）。韦伯主张历史上的统治者与被统治者间的关系多少包含了这样的成分。

他认为魅力型权威的不稳定性必然导致其被迫转变为“常规的”权威形式，也就是传统或者官僚型支配。同样的，他也注意到在纯粹的传统型支配里，对于支配者的 抵抗到达一定程度时便会产生“传统的革命”。

因此韦伯也暗示了社会会逐渐朝向一个理性合法的权威架构发展，并且利用官僚的架构制度。尽管韦伯庞杂的著作中暗示这种社会的理性化是不可避免的趋势，他自己十分小心避免进化论与目的论的逻辑。

参考资料来源：百度百科-马克斯·韦伯。

参考资料来源：百度百科-政治合法性。

最大电子书平台Z？

原地址自己点.

翻译:

1 The concept of service-oriented government and the characteristics of 。

The so-called service-oriented government, are in relation to the management of type, power type, a command-oriented government, it is based in the civic, community-based philosophy under the guidance of society in the whole framework of democratic order, through the statutory procedures, in accordance with the will of the formation of citizens with Civil Service for the purpose of that and assume the duty of the Government Service. 。

Service-oriented government has two important features: First, the Government has only provided the market, enterprises and individuals unable or unwilling to provide public goods and public services. As we all know, generally the product of modern economics is divided into public goods and private goods. Public goods (in addition to policies, regulations) are often large scale investment, long-term investment for businesses to invest in unprofitable public goods; For an individual, often can not afford. And public goods have the characteristics of the non-exclusive, but also makes it easy to have a free-rider psychological, that is, a person involved in the consumption of public goods, but they are not paid or fully paid the cost of production and to rely on others to pay. This free-rider psychological (as well as to avoid free-rider psychological) cause a collective irrational: we are unwilling to provide public goods. This decision can not be a public goods provided by the market. Economics of private goods and public goods classification of a good administration to define the scope of the service: the Government should only provide public goods to the public without the need should not be involved in the production of private goods. Personal belongings from the market mechanism can achieve an efficient supply, there is no need for government intervention in the production of private goods. Second, the Government should encourage market-oriented public service. Although the Government should provide public goods, but the government can not monopolize the production of public goods. In fact, even if only the government has the capacity to provide services, and therefore there is no reason to prohibit the private sector to try and find some other way, that is, non-use of compulsory powers in the case of goods and services provided by these methods. It is entirely possible to find some new ways to make a kind of impossible in the past by those willing to pay the people enjoy exclusive services as a service for transactions, and methods to allow the market to not be able to apply in its previous the field is applied. Government should be no monopoly on the supply of public goods means that the private and the private sector to enter these areas, these public service industries are market-oriented open. Therefore, the supply of public goods should be open to the private sector, and private provision of public goods do not do not want to contradict each other. As a service-oriented government, not only can not monopolize the supply of public goods and public services should be encouraged to market-oriented, because in the presence of competition, the Administration Service will be to minimize the extent of the defects and the market economic system and the basic requirements compatible. 。

2 to create the need for a service-oriented government 。

2.1 Service-oriented government construction are set up and perfect the socialist market economic system required an objective 。

Service-oriented government that is in accordance with the fundamental task of the socialist market economic system and the rule of law society, to provide a good environment for the development of a market economy. After 20 years of reform and opening up, China's socialist market economic system, the initial set up, but the impact of the traditional planned economy is still more serious, the old system under the most difficult problem was accumulated down, the special problems during the period of transformation has also been highlighted. The direct management of the economy, local protectionism and industrial monopoly and the department, such as fake and shoddy problem still exist, these are neither consistent with the WTO rules, but also seriously affect the entire market economy the development of the specification. Service-oriented government is to change the management of the past, the Government does not regulate, imperfect place, and further transform government functions and will focus on the Government to strengthen and improve macroeconomic regulation and control, standardize the market, to create a good market environment, improve public services and ability; make government management in line with the market economy, promoting China's socialist market economic system was perfect or not. 。

2.2 Service-oriented government is the purpose of our party and the government decide the nature of the 。

The purpose of our party the majority of people are seeking for the most benefits, this is a basic Marxist opinion. Implementation of the "three represents," the essence of governing for the people at insist. Party all the work, in order to achieve the most fundamental interests of the people to the highest standards. Our party is committed to the development of advanced productive forces and culture, it is in order to continuously meet the people's growing material and cultural needs, implementation and maintenance of the most fundamental interests of the people are adhering to the "three represents" the ultimate end-result. U.S. Government is the people's government, which made the government decide everything, must be only the people are for the benefit of the people. 。

2.3 Service-oriented government reform are essential Governments tend to 。

At sweeping the Western world in the style of reinventing government, and particularly since the 90's since the 20th century, Western governments are remodeling a service-oriented government as its main goal. In 1994, the British Government had a "Government Information Service," the experiment in November 1996 published "Government Direct" plan, put forward a new form of public service to meet the future needs of society. The United States Government in September 20, 1994 issued a "customer first: the United States Public Service standards," and advocated the establishment of government customers. December the same year, the United States Government Information Technology Services Group of the Government Information Technology Services Vision report, the reform of personnel administration is not only streamline and reduce government deficits, but also required the use of information technology at the power of the complete remodeling services to the Government of the people工作. New Zealand have a "department of public service reform", as well as Japan's "national implementation of the provision of high quality administration services," reflects the goal of government reform --- to build a service-oriented government. Since reform and opening up our country is to create a service-oriented government has made unremitting efforts to carry out a number of occasions in order to change their functions as the focus of institutional reform. 。

3 Service-oriented government to create the path selection 。

3.1 Construction of high-quality construction of the civil service are the key to a service-oriented government 。

Building a service-oriented government, first of all to build a high-quality civil service. The so-called high-quality civil service, civil servants not only have a high professional quality, but also refers to the civil service are of high political quality and a strong sense of service. Awareness of a culture of service, we must strengthen the civil service of professional ethics, responsibility, professionalism, improve the operational capacity of the civil service, service skills. In particular, it is necessary to emphasize the following three points: First, the initiative. National civil servants have taken the initiative to serve the public interest of the warm, good at discovering problems, understanding issues, would be to do research, to be able to quick-reaction capability to observe and understand the social objective things, and actively prevent and solve the problem. National civil servants at the same time also means that people can respond positively to the demand, to provide high-quality services. Efficiency are two. Administration to achieve administrative efficiency are the most important means of goal. The people need efficient government, I hope the Government to simplify procedures, improve efficiency, administration job search achieve the most rapid, most economical ways and means. Three are fair. The executive authorities and the related activity of any of the system are impartial person should be treated equally. And therefore on the concept of civil servants in the country, it is necessary to admit citizens of society with equal rights. Opportunities provided by the Government and well-being of society as much as possible at a fair distribution among the members. In specific acts of policy, there must be a kind of "impersonal" spirit of the law. That is, no special priority due to the pro-and not a result of thinning and indifference, not due to special high or low due to discrimination. The elimination of personal, non-rational and emotional factors, and safeguard social fairness and justice. 。

3.2 Deepening the reform of administrative examination and approval system for service-oriented government construction are an important measure 。

The reform of administrative examination and approval system in accordance with the general requirements of the reform of administrative examination and approval system at work, they should follow the five principles. ① the principle of legality. Namely, the establishment and implementation of administrative examination and approval according to law must be consistent with the requirements of administration, compliance with the statutory powers and statutory procedures, in accordance with relevant laws, regulations, rules must be open. There is no basis for regulatory documents, and documents in accordance with established department procedures for examination and approval will be canceled. ② the principle of reasonableness. Refers to the establishment and implementation of administrative examination and approval must be conducive to the development of the socialist market economy and overall social progress, there is conducive to the implementation of effective management. ③ the effectiveness of the principle. Requirements to simplify procedures, reduce the aspect for the masses, strengthen the service and shorten the time limit to avoid long, repetitive examination and approval, improve the efficiency of the administrative resources to a smaller investment in the work of the Government achieve the best goal. ④ the principle of duty. In accordance with the "Who examination and approval, who is responsible for" the principle of the right to have the administrative examination and approval, it is necessary to bear on the examination and approval of the appropriate duty. Non-performance of the administrative examination and approval authority, not right to permit the object to fulfill management responsibilities must be held accountable for approving the law or duty, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the responsibility given to the appropriate person to disciplinary action. ⑤ the principle of supervision. That is, the approving authority for the administration to supervise the exercise of the right to restrict the approval to ensure that the legitimate, reasonable and fair exercise of the right of administrative examination and approval, and safeguarding the legitimate interests of the relative. Relative to the person objected to the approval, it is necessary to make a written reply, and this has to apply for reconsideration and the right to bring an administrative lawsuit; the approving authority to deal with the timely reporting of complaints will be dealt with by appropriate means, the results of an informer reply, the complainant. "Lawful, reasonable, performance, responsibility, and supervision" are mutually complementary principles of organic whole, in the practical application can not be divided, one-sided emphasis on one or several. In particular, we must grasp the principle of legal principles and the organic unity of a reasonable, even if legal principles are in line with the procedures for examination and approval, if not in conformity with the principle of reasonableness, the examination and approval should also be removed through the legislative process;, though in line with the principle of reasonableness, but not in line with the principle of legality, should be through the legislative process, the development of normative legal documents to be identified. 。

3.3 Administration Service Center set up a service-oriented government is to achieve an important goal 。

Administrative Service Center is the original government functions focused on the functions of the department to a hall, to provide a unified service-oriented counterparts Service object. Administration Service Center set up so that citizens no longer required the department to find separately sections, on the hall at one time to solve the problem, many by running into a door into. Administration Service Center and matching system and have publicly committed to首问责任system.首问责任system requirements of the first consultation by the primary responsibility for civil servants. Asked such as the duty is a matter of the scope of this window must be in charge of receiving and handling all matters which, if it is not belong to the contents of the window Services, is responsible for advice or contact the relevant departments to help staff the reception may not prevarication. System of public commitment to adhere to the "open, just and fair" principle, public affairs. Administrative Service Center of all services, procedures, services and management of time limits and regulations are available to the public on service quality and speed of an open commitment to provide and accept supervision by the masses. "One-Stop Service",首问责任system and constitutes a public commitment to the system administration service center in the heart of the functioning of the mechanism, are something new administration of the Service Center where the new ideas. Administration Services Center is set up the traditional administrative system changes and abandoning, the concept of the government's management reform and innovation. Services Administration for approval by the Center to examine issues focus for the implementation of the "one-window external," "one-stop office", "one-stop service" by "operating under the sun, standardized management" of the form, open to all business processes, so that the course of administrative activities and administrative powers, the use of open, transparent, improve the transparency of the exercise of power, in order to set up efficient, coordinated operation, the service code of conduct for the Government to lay a good foundation. 。

3.4 the development of implementation of e-government services are an important means of government. 。

The main objective of e-government is to establish that the public service-oriented government. The development of e-government belong to the scope of political reform, the implementation of e-government is the government to break the monopoly of public services, improve efficiency, faster, more direct and wider social services for the public services. This public information available more public resources, the government can enjoy a more specific and more personalized services. The openness of e-government access to the Internet decide the Government must make public their administration. First of all, are asking the Government to act in public, whether it is government policy or government approval can not be put into black-box operations are to be carried out in accordance with statutory procedures and accept supervision of the people. Then the Chief of Information, all the law requires the Chief to the public information must be available on the Internet to the public. 。

3.5 to promote the socialization of public services are a service-oriented government aim to achieve an effective way. 。

The socialization of public services mainly refers to the original commitment by the Government some public service functions, a large number to be transferred to non-governmental organizations and the private sector, from public services and public goods entirely by government departments or state-owned enterprises into the Government's use of social forces or by the semi-autonomous self-governing society organizations and the private sector to provide the public with public services and products, some of the private sector, an independent body, social self-government, semi-autonomous organizations, social organizations, will become public goods and services providers, to provide the same public goods and services to compete. Government, through the power of social organization, use and management, implementation of public administration and services of society in order not to increase the size of government expenditure and improve public services, improve administrative efficiency. The socialization of public services can add lot of non-governmental organizations to the public provision of services and products to the ranks, so that the original commitment by the Government a large part of the transfer of functions of public administration go out, the Government may partially or even completely free from day-to-day affairs from concentrate on policy formulation and implementation of market economic order of maintenance, construction of basic facilities, truly "at the helm, rather than rowing", to provide more quality services. This is also the implementation of "small government, big society" premise. 。

Implementation of public services to society, the Government must be widely used in the manner authorized or decentralization of social services and the management of the authority through democratic means to take part in or delegated to a number of organizations in society, and authorized the use of policies to encourage the social intermediary organizations, community-based or the private sector to shoulder some of the cause of public service and products. With changes in social structure, social pattern of multiple interests, the growth of civil society, foster, develop and regulate the social intermediary organizations to promote the socialization of public services, the establishment of a social self-management mechanisms, will become the Government's social reform and the practice of management one orientation, and construction services are an important part of government.。

罗马的英语介绍

前段时间，号称“全球最大的数字图书馆”Z-Library网站的多个域名遭美国政府查封。与此同时，法国、印度等国家也官方下达了封禁指令，将Z-Library从当地搜索引擎的结果列表中移除。该事件一出也引发中文互联网世界哗然，网友戏称“道理都懂”，但还是忍不住为这场“亚历山大图书馆的焚烧”哀叹，也有保留意见称，该事件或许仍有转机。

Z-Library原先网站截图。该网站在下方介绍中自称为“全球最大的数字图书馆”。

然而，据美国司法部最新消息，该网站的两名创始人已在阿根廷被捕，并面临“侵犯版权、电汇欺诈及洗钱罪”等多项指控，目前案件仍在审理当中。实际上，在过去二十年左右的时间中，曾相继出现了一系列“影子图书馆”（Shadow Library，通常指收集了大量享有著作权的书籍，并向公众免费开放的网站，“影子”也意味着其可能处于不合法的灰色地带）——Gigapedia、Kolkhoz、Librusec，以及最近的Lib.gen和Sci-Hub，它们多次面临解散或关闭的结局，但又一次次借由新的域名重启。如果这背后当真是黑白分明的版权之争，为何被贴上“数字盗版”标签的这些网站，会在舆论场上一再获得声援？

在过去的一个月，Z-Library遭遇封站后，国外社交媒体上也在持续进行着一场围绕“数字版权与知识开放”的大讨论。一边是价格连年高走的资源付费让读者叫苦不迭，另一边是坚持“版权至上”的出版公司不断发起维权围剿，这些同今年四月“中国知网”引发的风波遥相呼应。值得注意的是，在这一轮交锋中，越来越多的创作者从幕后走到台前，这一次，他们中有不少人站在了宣称“保护其权益”的出版商对面，质疑现有的“版权结构”对作者本人的伤害远超因“盗版”而失去的利润。这些声音再度引发人们思考，“版权”在实际运作中究竟保护的是谁的权益。

当我们梳理相关争议会发现，围绕Z-Library的关停风波中，人们在面对盗版伦理的相关问题时，同时也在与现有合法的出版模式辩论，后者提供给原作者或投稿人的报酬多数时候十分有限。由此引出的更深的问题在于，知识作为一种可以被精确地无限复制的资源，是否应该受到“绝对所有权”的限制？在当前全球对开放获取运动的支持呼声持续高涨的背景下，法院对Z-Library一案的最终裁定，或将成为一个具有风向标意义的分水岭事件。

铁打的网站，流水的域名：“影子图书馆”的缘起与自我复制。

“这注定是一场无法取胜的版权战争。”美国月刊《理性》（Reason）杂志认为，根除以Z-Library为代表的这类数字图书馆几乎是不可能的，只要人们需要免费信息，现代科技和数字生态系统就会提供，最终这一系列行动将以耗时耗力的高昂代价收场。

尽管Z-Library最近一次公布的数据显示，截至2022年6月12日，该网站收录了超1045万本书籍和8483万篇文章，自称“全球最大的数字图书馆”，但这一颇为惊人的馆藏却是短短十余年间快速积累的结果。早在2009年，Z-Library最初作为另一家知名电子书分享平台Lib.Genesis（创世纪图书馆）的镜像版出现，与Sci-Hub并称全球知名的三大在线数据库。它们彼此之间形成资源共享，服务器分布在全球多个地区。据创建Sci-Hub的哈萨克斯坦神经科学家亚历山德拉·埃尔巴金 (Alexandra Elbakyan)称，当有人请求一篇文章时，系统会首先检索Lib.Gen数据库。但如果文章不在那里，系统就会使用捐赠的密码登录期刊网站，下载文章，并将其同时提供给请求它的用户和主数据库。

这样的互联结构可以最大限度地减少备份数据的空间，同时在包含相关数据库的磁盘丢失的情况下，依然能够继续运作。一旦某个域名遭到封禁，一些用户也能够快速罗织一个未被阻止的链接列表，进而通过另一条数字路径将其带到被禁止的网站。这些层出不穷的镜像网址就像是神话中的“九头蛇”，即便官方能够查封其某个分部，它们也能通过建立新的域名快速重建馆藏。

Sci-Hub界面。

值得注意的是，包括Lib.Gen和Sci-Hub在内，今天的许多影子图书馆几乎最初都是在俄语环境中开展业务。最早的影子图书馆之一lib.ru是由一位俄罗斯学者创建，在过去二十年左右，互联网世界相继出现了一系列“图书馆”——Gigapedia、Kolkhoz、Librusec等，这些馆藏文本也以俄语为主，后来才逐渐发展为包含其他语种的资源库。而“开放”的传统来源于“限制”，阿姆斯特丹大学的盗版研究人员巴拉兹-博多（Balázs Bodó）认为，松散的版权法、薄弱的知识产权保护规则，这些都使得影子图书馆得已在俄罗斯存在并蓬勃发展。更何况，当地还有着世界上最早一批台式机和数据库。

20世纪90年代之前，苏联大中城市68%以上的家庭会在黑市购买书籍，当地学者也常年通过地下出版物规避政府审查。即便在1991年苏联解体后，审查制度正式结束，但国家对出版业的资助也随之结束，此前的政治限制被经济限制取代，大规模失业、工资下降以及由此导致的可自由支配收入的减少进一步削弱了向以市场为基础的出版模式的转变。与此同时，俄罗斯本土的版权保护一直比其他地方更为宽松，在签署《世界版权公约》前，作者去世后15年，其作品就可在俄“免费”使用。

这些都为影子图书馆的不断重启蒙上了一层“利他主义”的光晕，它自诞生之初就被视为官方图书文化和出版商业模式的对面，假使抛开其对个人信息安全构成的潜在风险不谈，它的确免费、自下而上且不受审查制约。博多在其另一篇发表于2020年的研究中，对“影子图书馆”的访问记录作了“供给侧分析”，发现很大一部分下载集中在合法但无法访问的作品上，“黑市的出现，无论是文化、毒品还是武器，始终是一种症状，是供需摩擦的警告信号”。当合法可用的东西与需求的东西之间存在重大差异时，“文化黑市”将在这里与既定和公认的“文化中介”竞争，并超越竞争。在这种持续存在的生存威胁下，商业模式和机构面对“铁打的营盘，流水的兵”，也不得不亦步亦趋地适应，或是主动进化或是被动出局。

纪录片《书缘》（2017）剧照。

“别以你的名字呼唤我”：学术界与创作者的质疑声音。

早在Z-Library关停风波前，影子图书馆就已经成为大型出版商及期刊的眼中钉。2015 年，美国最大的学术出版商之一爱思唯尔（Elsevier）上诉法庭，试图关闭其中两家最受欢迎的图书馆Sci-Hub和Lib.Gen。2017年，美国纽约地方法院裁定Sci-Hub违反美国版权法，判给爱思唯尔1500万美元的赔偿金。2020年，爱思唯尔、美国化学学会（ACS）联合美国出版商威利（Wiley）在德里高等法院再次对Sci-Hub提起诉讼，并将其创建者埃尔巴金一并列为被告。在发起的连番声讨中，他们坚称影子图书馆不仅给出版商造成经济损失，也危及那些图书作者与科研人员的利益。

然而，这一说法并未赢得一致支持，至少来自学界的反对声音由来已久。2015年，包括前文提到的盗版研究员博多在内，多位学界人士曾联名签署公开信支持影子图书馆，他们在信中直言，上述诉讼案件实则对研究人员而言是“一个沉重的打击”。以爱思唯尔为例，其每年37%的利润率与不断上涨的学费、扩大的学生贷款债务以及兼职教师的微薄的工资形成鲜明对比。爱思唯尔拥有一些最大的学术资料数据库，这些资料的授权价格却高得离谱，以至于即使是全球北方最富有的大学哈佛大学也曾抱怨“负担不起”。

哈佛图书馆前任馆长罗伯特·达恩顿 (Robert Darnton) 称：“我们的教师做研究，写论文，为其他研究人员的论文做评议，在编辑委员会任职，所有这些都是免费的……然后，我们却要以离谱的价格买回我们的劳动成果。”如果取消“捆绑”订阅，一篇期刊文章的平均成本一般在30美元左右。此外，仅阅读摘要部分可能很难知道该研究是否相关。这就迫使学者和学生在知道他们是否真的需要阅读这篇论文之前，先掏钱。期刊文章的定价使得世界各地的许多学者——以及所有非学者——难以进入其中，从而使其成为特权的象征。

面对这一局面，20世纪90年代初，学界也曾兴起一波“开放获取”（Open Access）的浪潮。支持者的诉求很简单，因为制作数字副本的成本几乎为零，他们呼吁学术文章免费开放，如今使用率颇高的维基百科就是这一构想的实践尝试。而在开放获取运动约两年后，美国的几所大学纷纷威胁要取消对学术期刊的订阅，以抗议过高定价。

不过，这一浪潮至今也没能将影子图书馆带到阳光之下。《纽约时报》的一篇评论没有避讳其中的复杂性。一方面，校方的威胁反而导致出版商重新设计商业模式，最后推出了所谓的“作者付费”，这意味着作者必须向期刊支付在线发表文章的费用。另一方面，开放获取的真正障碍其实来自学界内部。在现有的考评机制下，学者想要在竞争教席、晋升、终身教职和资助金申请中获得优势，其所处的环境会根据他们发表的文章来评判。那些享有盛名的期刊，如《细胞》《自然》和《柳叶刀》等，也往往对其内容保护得最好，而高校也倾向于通过其在这些期刊发表文章的数量标榜学术实力，“真正的罪魁祸首是科学界的领导人——诺贝尔科学家、机构负责人、大学校长——他们有能力改变现状，但从未正视这个问题，部分原因在于，他们也构成了系统本身”。

对于那些游离于大学的研究者而言，影子图书馆显得更为珍稀。印度法学者高塔姆·巴蒂亚（Gautam Bhatia）甚至在其2019年的作品《变革性宪法》（暂译，The Transformative Constitution）中引用了影子图书馆。他坦言如果没有Lib.Gen，也就不会有这本书的面世，“在大学的封闭区域之外做学术，就像尝试仅凭一只胳膊和一条腿游泳”。

相较于学界研究者而言，图书作者此前对影子图书馆的抵制情绪相对一致，毕竟作者依靠的并非同行评议和引用，而是不断上升的销售数据来供给创作的物质养分，同时凭借这个数据争取更多的出版机会。不过值得注意的是，近年来不少图书作者也纷纷表态，对关停影子图书馆持保留意见。出版《变革性宪法》的巴蒂亚同时也是位科幻小说家，他的小说《墙》（暂译，The Wall）此前可以在Z-Library下载，对此，他调侃说：“我对那些下载电子图书的人没有任何评判，因为你知道，他们毕竟是要花钱的。”

另一部分反对关停影子图书馆的创作者实则出于权衡利弊。美国自由撰稿人艾莉森·鲁米特（Alison Rumitt）认为，虽然该网站的存在令她损失了一部分收入，但相比于切断作品的访问渠道以及美方因此逮捕个人而言，所谓的“解决方案”远比问题本身更糟糕。她承认自己也会访问影子图书馆下载那些已经绝版的作品。对于试图在资本主义机器中谋生的作家而言，单本书售出后分得的利润太过有限，现有的“版权结构”对作者本人的伤害可能远超因“盗版”而失去的利润。鲁米特称，与其以保护作者之名讨伐影子图书馆，不如先保证作者能够得到更加公平的待遇，“这很可能是目前唯一的解决办法”。

纪录片《书缘》（2017）剧照。

围绕“版权”的争议：数字盗版？不合理垄断？

尽管反对关停Z-Library的声音四起，但影子图书馆本身的确长期存在争议。来自美国知识产权注册处的贾斯丁·斯宾塞（Justin Spence）称，以Sci-Hub为代表的影子图书馆是在宣扬“盗版”的正当性，它传递了一个错误的观念，即“任何知识都应该是免费的”，然而学术生产与交流的动力其实十分复杂，这套“利他主义”的构想模糊了其中的成本。斯宾塞承认每个人都能以合理的价格获得知识成果本身十分重要，但不应该将其推到极致，以至于为了实现这一目标，所有手段都可以接受。

那么，影子图书馆究竟是否涉及“盗版”侵权？在《影子图书馆：侵犯版权还是公共利益？》一文中，卡维亚·贾（Kavya Jha）对比了2016年发生在印度的“德里大学复印案”。牛津大学出版社曾联合多家机构起诉德里校内复印店侵犯其版权，被告辩解称，影印资料被用于教学参考，只有一小部分书籍被复制，并未影响原告书籍市场。最终，法院判定被告胜诉，依据是“在出于教育目的正当合理的范围内，使用受版权保护的作品属于合理使用”。不过，稍有不同的是，在Z-Library为代表的案件中，影子图书馆无法证明其提供的材料并未用于商业研究。

《影子图书馆》（Joe Karaganis著），该书研究和比较世界各地知识分享的方式和现状。

与此同时，影子图书馆涉及的另一个问题是“营利”判定。卡维亚·贾指出，大多数盗版网站的目的不是提供免费内容，而是赚钱。然而，影子图书馆并非以营利为目的运作。为反驳这一点，出版方声称这些网站曾接受过高额捐款，这足以显示其营利动机。但是否能够将商业动机等同于接受捐赠其实也有待商榷，更何况，其中并非所有资源都受到版权保护。

而在“盗版”界定之争以外，影子图书馆仍在一次次重启，这之中的症结其实在于资源的可及性，或者说知识本身的阶级性。正如前文统计，在影子图书馆的使用记录中，很大一部分下载集中在那些合法但无法访问的作品上。这种“无法访问”部分出于资源的不均衡，偏远地区“很难在当地书店买到需要的书籍，即便能远程买到，也需要等几个月才能收到”，又或者是“绝版资料”。同时，迈阿密大学法学院知识产权教授维维克·贾亚拉姆（Vivek Jayaram）指出，过高的准入价格也引起质疑——“信息不应仅限于那些有足够特权的人才能负担得起”。

相关争论也逐渐上升为对“版权”本身的质疑。美国自由主义律师斯蒂芬·金塞拉（Stephan Kinsella）甚至直言，版权是政府立法授予的不合理垄断。不同于具有竞争性和排他性的“稀缺实物”，文字或思想可以被精确地无限复制，应该属于公共物品范畴。更何况，大部分时候“版权”所维护的也并非创作者的利益，而是将出版商变成了他人“财产”的部分所有者。2023年，总部位于荷兰的爱思唯尔的出版部门报告利润约为11亿美元，收入为30亿美元。而据中国知网的财报显示，其2023年净利润1.94亿元，毛利率高达53.35%，这一数据自2005以来最高时一度达到72%，而这之中作者本人分得的收益微乎其微。

同方知网2023年财报截图。（资料来自同方股份财报）

另外《理性》杂志评论则称，从功利主义角度看，版权的规定原是为了“促进科学和实用艺术的进步”，但实际上关闭“影子图书馆”弊大于利，因为后者在很大程度上促进了研究。正如《柳叶刀》在2016年的一封公开信所言，此类网站可能对秘鲁等地的医生大有裨益，那里很少有医生能够访问“他们需要的文件和信息，以照顾越来越多病情多样的患者”。而在新冠大流行期间，此类论点变得更加有力。

这些都使得Z-Library一案的最终裁定备受关注。正如卡维亚·贾所言，在当前全球对开放获取运动的支持呼声持续高涨的背景下，法院每一次对此类案件的判定都可能成为一个具有风向标意义的分水岭事件。回到“德里影印案”，法院判决中的阐释或许至今仍然值得思考：“版权，特别是文字作品的版权，并非一种不可避免的、神圣的或自然的权利、赋予作者对其创作的绝对所有权……版权的目的是促进而不是阻碍知识的获取。它的目的是激励作者和发明者的创造性活动，最终，以造福公众。”

参考链接：

1. Z-Library shutdown leaves users scrambling to find alternatives。

69818/lifestyle/z-library-shutdown-leaves-users-scrambling-to-find-alternatives/。

2. Z-library banned, students in a frenzy。

daily-star-books/news/z-library-banned-students-frenzy-3162551。

3. A shadow library ban pits publishers against free information activists。

sci-tech/technology/a-shadow-library-ban-pits-publishers-against-free-information-activists/article65889736.ece。

4. You Can’t Stop Pirate Libraries。

2022/07/24/you-cant-stop-pirate-libraries/。

5. “Free Libraries for the free people”: How mass-literature “shadow” libraries circumvent digital barriers and redefine legality in contemporary Russia.。

ojs/index.php/fm/article/download/11715/10136?inline=1#author。

6. Why the Big Shadow Libraries Are Russian。

Why the Big Shadow Libraries Are Russian。

7. In defence of Z-Library and book piracy。

life-culture/article/57545/1/in-defence-of-piracy-and-z-library-shut-down-alison-rumfitt-writer-author。

8. Should All Research Papers Be Free?。

2016/03/13/opinion/sunday/should-all-research-papers-be-free.html。

9. Shadow Libraries: Copyright Infringement or Public Interest?。

Shadow Libraries: Copyright Infringement or Public Interest?。

作者/申璐

编辑/李永博

校对/王心

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