prefectures-70

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秦始皇陵位于陕西省西安市以东30公里的骊山北麓（另两资料分别为：秦始皇陵位于临潼以东5千米处的下河村。秦始皇陵位于西安市以东35公里的临潼区境内，），它南依骊山的层恋叠嶂之中，山林葱郁；北临逶迤曲转、似银蛇横卧的渭水之滨。高大的封冢在巍巍峰峦环抱之中与骊山浑然一体，景色优美，环境独秀。陵墓规模宏大，气势雄伟。陵园总面积为56．25平方公里。陵上封土原高约115米，现仍高达76米，陵园内有内外两重城垣，内城周长3840米，外城周长6210米。内外城廓有高约8—10米的城墙，今尚残留遗址。墓葬区在南，寝殿和便殿建筑群在北。

秦始皇是中国历史上一位杰出的政治家，姓嬴名政，秦庄襄王之子，公元前259年出生于赵国京都邯郸，公元前246年13岁即立为秦王，22岁加冕亲政。自公元前236年至公元前221年的15年中，秦国先后灭掉了韩、赵、魏、楚、燕、齐六个诸侯国，彻底结束了战国群雄割据的历史，在血与火中，建立了中国历史上第一个统一的、多民族、中央集权制的封建王朝——秦王朝。“秦皇扫六合，虎势何雄哉；挥剑决浮云，诸侯尽西来。”秦始皇——这位叱咤风云的旷世君主，不仅为后人留下了千秋伟业，还留有这座神秘莫测的皇家陵园。

据史书记载，秦始皇嬴政即位的次年即开始修陵园。到公元前208年完工，历时39年。（另两资料：一、他在位37年，而为其修建陵墓的时间就长达36年；二、秦始皇陵于秦始皇即位起开工修建，前后历时38年之久）。当时的丞相李斯为陵墓的设计者，由大将军章邯监工。共征集了72万人力，动用修陵人数最多时近于80万，几乎相当于修建胡夫金字塔人数的8倍。

秦始皇陵是中国历史上第一个皇帝陵园。其巨大的规模、丰富的陪葬物居历代帝王陵之首，是最大的皇帝陵。陵园按照秦始皇死后照样享受荣华富贵的原则，仿照秦国都城咸阳的布局建造，大体呈回字形，陵墓周围筑有内外两重城垣，陵园内城垣周长3870米，外城垣周长6210米，陵区内目前探明的大型地面建筑为寝殿、便殿、园寺吏舍等遗址。据史载，秦始皇陵陵区分陵园区和从葬区两部分。陵园占地近8平方公里, 建外、内城两重，封土呈四方锥形。秦始皇陵的封土形成了三级阶梯，状呈覆斗，底部近似方型，底面积约25万平方米，高115米，但由于经历两千多年的风雨侵蚀和人为破坏，现封土底面积约为12万平方米，高度为87米（另一资料：陵园初高120米，“高大若山”，后经风化侵蚀及人为破坏，降低了40多米）。整座陵区总面积为56.25平方公里。建筑材料是从湖北、四川等地运来的。为了防止河流冲刷陵墓，秦始皇还下令将南北向的水流改成东西向。

陵园的南部有一个土冢，高43米。筑有内外两道夯土城墙。内城周长3890米，外城周长6249米，分别象征皇城和宫城。在内城和外城之间，考古工作者发现了葬马坑、陶俑坑、珍禽异兽坑，以及陵外的人殉坑、马厩坑、刑徒坑和修陵人员的墓室。已发现的墓坑有400多座。

秦始皇陵的冢高55.05米，周长2000米。经调查发现，整个墓地占地面积为22万平方米，内有大规模的宫殿楼阁建筑。陵寝的形制分为内外两城。内城为周长2525.4米的方形，外城周长6264米。秦始皇陵的规模之大远非埃及金字塔所能比。

秦始皇帝陵是中国第一座皇家陵园，在中国近百座帝王陵墓中，以其规模宏大，埋藏丰富著称于世。1956年陕西省人民政府公布为省级重点文物保护单位，1961年，被中华人民共和国国务院公布第一批重点文物保护单位，1987年，联合国教育、科学文化组织，把秦始皇帝陵列入世界文化遗产保护目录，成为全人类共同的财富。2002年秦始皇陵荣膺国家AAAA级旅游景区。

古埃及金字塔是世界上最大的地上王陵，中国秦始皇陵是世界上最大的地下皇陵。

秦王朝是中国历史上辉煌的一页，秦始皇陵更集中了秦代文明的最高成就。秦始皇把他生前的荣华富贵全部带入地下。秦始皇陵地下宫殿是陵墓建筑的核心部分，位于封土堆之下。《史记》记载：“穿三泉，下铜而致椁，宫观百官，奇器异怪徙藏满之。以水银为百川江河大海，机相灌输。上具天文，下具地理，以人鱼膏为烛，度不灭者久之。”考古发现地宫面积约18万平方米，中心点的深度约30米。陵园以封土堆为中心，四周陪葬分布众多，内涵丰富、规模空前，除闻名遐迩的兵马俑陪葬坑、铜车马坑之外 ，又新发现了大型石质铠甲坑、百戏俑坑、文官俑坑以及陪葬墓等600余处，数十年来秦陵考古工作中出土的文物多达10万余件。在陵园里设立有多处文物展台，展示了秦陵近20年来出土的部分文物；布置有水道展区，重现当年陵园内科学周密的排水设施；相信随着考古工作的进展，肯定还会有更大的意想不到的发现。

在凝重的绿色和高大的墓冢之间，为了让游客身临其境的感受王者的尊荣、王者的威仪，秦始皇陵上演有大型的“重现的仪仗队——秦始皇守陵部队换岗仪式”表演和集“声、光、电”于一体的秦始皇陵陵区、陵园、地宫沙盘模型展示，再现了两千多年前神秘陵园的壮观场景，展示了数十年来的考古成果，生动直观地揭示秦陵奥秘，展示其丰富内涵。

秦始皇陵是中国历史上第一座帝王陵园，是我国劳动人民勤奋和聪明才智的结晶，是一座历史文化宝库，在所有封建帝王陵墓中以规模宏大、埋藏丰富而著称于世。

据《史记·秦始皇本纪》记载，陵墓一直挖到地下的泉水，用铜加固基座，上面放着棺材……墓室里面放满了奇珍异宝。墓室内的要道机关装着带有利箭的弓弩，盗墓的人一靠近就会被射死。墓室里还注满水银，象征江河湖海；墓顶镶着夜明珠，象征日月星辰；墓里用鱼油燃灯，以求长明不灭……

秦始皇陵共发现10座城门，南北城门与内垣南门在同一中轴线上。坟丘的北边是陵园的中心部分，东西北三面有墓道通向墓室，东西两侧还并列着4座建筑遗存，有专家认为是寝殿建筑的一部分。秦始皇陵集中体现了“事死如事生”的礼制，规模宏大，气势雄伟，结构舒特。

陵墓地宫中心是安放秦始皇棺椁的地方，陵墓四周有陪葬坑和墓葬400多个，范围广及56.25平方公里。主要陪葬坑有铜车、马坑、珍禽异兽坑、马厩坑以及兵马俑坑等，历年来已有5万多件重要历史文物出土。1980年发掘出土的一组两乘大型的彩绘铜车马——高车和安车，是迄今中国发现的体形最大、装饰最华丽，结构和系驾最逼真、最完整的古代铜车马，被誉为“青铜之冠”。

兵马俑坑是秦始皇陵的陪葬坑，位于陵园东侧1500米处。1974年春被当地打井的农民发现。由此埋葬在地下两千多年的宝藏得以面世，被誉为“世界第八奇迹”。为研究秦朝时期的军事、政治、经济、文化、科学技术等，提供了十分珍贵的实物资料，成为世界人类文化的宝贵财富。兵马俑坑现已发掘3座，俑坑坐西向东，呈“品”字形排列，坑内有陶俑、陶马8000多件，还有4万多件青铜兵器。

坑内的陶塑艺术作品是仿制的秦宿卫军。近万个或手执弓、箭、弩，或手持青铜戈、矛、戟，或负弩前驱，或御车策马的陶质卫士，分别组成了步、弩、车、骑四个兵种。在地下坑道中的所有卫士都是面向东方放置的。据钻探得知共有三个陪葬坑，其中1974年发现的一号坑最大，它东西长230米，南北宽62米，深5米左右，长廊和11条过洞组成了整个坑，与真人马大小相同、排成方阵的6000多个武士俑和拖战车的陶马被放置在坑中。在一号坑的东北约20米的地方是在1976年春天发现的二号坑，它是另一个壮观的兵阵。南北宽84米，东西长96米的二号坑，面积9216平方米，建筑面积为17016平方米。二号坑内有多兵种联合阵容，包括步兵、车兵、骑兵和弩兵等。二号坑西边是三号坑，1989年10月1日才开始允许游客参观。南北宽24.5米，东西长28.8米的三号坑面积为500多平方米。三号坑经有关专家推断，被认为是用来统帅一、二号坑的军幕。一乘战车，68个卫士俑以及武器都保存在坑内。

1974年以来，在陵园东1.5公里处发现从葬兵马俑坑三处，成品字形排列，面积共达2万平方米以上，出土陶俑8000件、战车百乘以及数万件实物兵器等文物。其中一号坑为“右军”，埋葬着和真人真马同大的陶俑、陶马约6千件；二号坑为“左军”，有陶俑、陶马1300余件，战车89辆，是一个由步兵、骑兵、战车等三个兵种混合编组的曲阵，也是秦俑坑的精华所在；三号坑有武士俑68个，战车1辆，陶马4匹，是统帅地下大军的指挥部。这个军阵是秦国军队编组的缩影。 1980年又在陵园西侧出土青铜铸大型车马2乘。引起全世界的震惊和关注, 这些按当时军阵编组的陶俑、陶马为秦代军事编制、作战方式、骑步卒装备的研究提供了形象的实物资料。 兵马俑的发现被誉为“世界第八大奇迹”，“二十世纪考古史上的伟大发现之一”。秦俑的写实手法作为中国雕塑史上的承前启后艺术为世界瞩目。现已在一、二、三号坑成立了秦始皇陵兵马俑博物馆, 对外开放。

秦始皇陵是世界上规模最大、结构最奇特、内涵最丰富的帝王陵墓之一。秦始皇陵兵马俑是可以同埃及金字塔和古希腊雕塑相媲美的世界人类文化的宝贵财富，而它的发现本身就是20世纪中国最壮观的考古成就。它们充分表现了2000多年前中国人民巧夺天工的艺术才能，是中华民族的骄傲和宝贵财富。法国总统希拉克对它的“世界第八奇迹”的赞誉，使秦始皇陵为更多的世人所知。世界文化遗产的桂冠，为秦始皇陵更增光彩。

[编辑本段]陵园工程

“秦皇扫六合，虎视何雄哉，刑徒七十万，起土骊山隈。”

这脍炙人口的诗句出自大诗人李白笔下，它讴歌了秦始皇的辉煌业绩，描述了营造骊山墓工程的浩大气势。的确，陵园工程之浩大、用工人数之多、持续时间之久都是前所未有的。

陵园工程的修建伴随着秦始皇一生的政治生涯。当他13岁刚刚登上国王宝座时，陵园营建工程也就随之开始了。古代帝王生前造陵并非秦始皇的首创。早在战国时期诸侯国王生前造陵已蔚然成风。如赵肃侯“十五年起寿陵”，还有平山县中山国王的陵墓也是生前营造的。秦始皇只不过是把国君生前造陵的时间提前到即位初期，这是秦始皇的一点改进。陵园工程修造了30多年一直至秦始皇临死之际尚未竣工，二世皇帝继位，接着又修建了一年多才基本完工。

纵观陵园工程，前后可分为三个施工阶段。自秦王即位开始到统一全国的26年为陵园工程的初期阶段。这一阶段先后展开了陵园工程的设计和主体工程的施工，初步奠定了陵园工程的规模和基本格局。从统一全国到秦始皇三十五年，历时9年当为陵园工程的大规模修建时期。经过数10万人9年来大规模的修建，基本完成了陵园的主体工程。自秦始皇三十五年到二世二年冬，历时3年多是为工程的最后阶段。这一阶段主要从事陵园的收尾工程与覆土任务。尽管陵墓工程历时如此之久，整个工程仍然没有最后竣工。当时历史上爆发了一次波澜壮阔的农民大起义。陈胜、吴广的部下周文率兵迅速打到了距陵园不足数华里的戏水附近（今临潼县新丰镇附近）。面临大军压境、威逼咸阳之势，二世这位未经风雨锻炼的新皇帝惊慌失措，召来群臣商讨对策。他一幅丧魂落魄的样子，向群臣发出“为之奈何”的哀求。这时少府令章邯建议：“盗已至，众疆，今发近县不及矣，骊山徒多，请赦之，授兵以击之。”二世当即迎合，并让章邯率领修陵大军回击周文的起义军。至此尚未完全竣工的陵园工程才不得不中止。

总之，陵园工程由选点设计、施工营造到最后被迫中止，前后长达37～38年之久，在我国陵寝修建史上名列榜首，其修建的时间比埃及胡夫金字塔还要长8年。

[编辑本段]秦陵风水的传说

骊山以它特有的温泉和风景而闻名于世。西周末年的周幽王与爱妾褒姒曾在这里演出了一场兴起烽火戏诸侯的历史悲剧，从而葬送了西周王朝。相传秦始皇生前在骊山与神女相遇，游览当中欲戏神女，神女盛怒之下，朝他脸上唾了一口，秦始皇很快就长了一身的烂疮。虽然这是一个神话故事，但隐隐约约可以看出秦始皇与骊山似乎有些缘分。他的墓地也选在骊山之旁。秦始皇为什么特别迷恋骊山这块风水宝地呢？

古人把墓地的选择看作是一件造福于子孙后代的大事，尤其象秦始皇这个企图传之于万世的封建帝王自然对墓地的位置更加重视。他之所以要安葬在骊山之阿，据北魏时期的郦道元解释：“秦始皇大兴厚葬，营建冢圹于骊戎之山，一名蓝田，其阴多金，其阳多美玉，始皇贪其美名，因而葬焉。”郦道元的观点受到学术界多数学者的肯定。不过也有学者提出过异议，持否定意见的一方认为，秦始皇陵选在骊山之阿一是取决于当时的礼制，二是受“依山造陵”传统观念的影响。（见《秦始陵园渊源试探》、《文博》1990年第5期。）现在从风水角度来看秦始皇陵也不失为一块理想的风水宝地。

早在春秋战国时期已兴起了依山造陵的观念。后来人们选择墓地又特点重视依山傍水的地理环境。“立冢安坟，须籍来山去水。”（见《大汉原陵秘葬经》）依山傍水被古人视作最佳风水宝地。至于这个观念始于何时，无从考起。应该说秦始皇陵是“依山傍水”造陵的典范。秦始皇陵园南依骊山，北临渭水，这是大家有目共睹的事实。然而在秦始皇陵的东侧也有一道人工改造的鱼池水。按《水经注》记载：“水出骊山东北，本导源北流，后秦始皇葬于山北，水过而曲行，东注北转，始皇造陵取土，其地于深，水积成池，谓之鱼池也……池水西北流途经始皇冢北。”可见鱼池水原来是出自骊山东北，水由南向北流。后来修建秦始皇陵时，在陵园西南侧修筑了一条东西向的大坝，坝长1000余米，一般宽40多米，最宽处达70余米，残高2至8米，它就是人们通常所说的五岭遗址。正是这条大坝将原来出自骊东北的鱼池水改为西北流，绕秦始皇陵东北而过。此外，在陵园东侧，在川流不息的温泉水经过。据《水经注》记载：“在鱼池水西南有温泉水，世以疗疾”。《三秦记》曰：“郦山西北有温泉。”可见当年的温泉与西北的鱼池水相对应。由此不难发现秦始皇陵的风水特点是，南面背山，东西两侧和北面形成三面环水之势。“依山环水”不正是秦始皇陵特意选择的风水宝地吗？

秦代“依山环水”的造陵观念对后代建陵产生了深远的影响。西汉帝陵如高祖长陵、文帝霸陵、景帝阳陵、武帝茂陵等就是仿效秦始皇陵“依山环水”的风水思想选择的。以后历代陵墓基本上继承了这个建陵思想。

[编辑本段]陵墓内果真有飞雁吗？

秦地宫内有哪些珍贵的随葬品？千百年来由此引发了许多神奇的传说故事。地宫飞雁就是一个十分迷人的传说。

《三辅故事》记载，楚霸王项羽入关后，曾以三十万人盗掘秦陵。在他们挖掘过程中，突然一只金雁从墓中飞出，这只神奇的飞雁一直朝南飞去。斗转星移过了几百年，到三国时期，（宝鼎元年）一位在日南做太守的官吏名曰张善，一天，有人给他送来一只金雁，他立即从金雁上的文字判断此物乃出自始皇陵也。这个神奇的传说有没有历史依据？近年来有的学者著文指出：“这虽然是个传说故事，但说明秦陵内的文物曾经流失于外，并且远达云南以南。至于说金雁制作精巧，不但好看，而且还能飞，这也是有可能的。因为在春秋时期，著名工匠鲁班已经能制造出木雁，在天空中飞翔，直飞到宋国的城上。几百年后，秦国的工匠能制造出会飞的金雁，这是可信的。”（武伯纶、张文立《秦始皇帝陵》，上海人民出版社1990年3月）那么，这个传说故事究竟可信不可信？

在中国这个历史上不甚看重科技的国度内，假若在2200多年前就能制造出会飞的金雁，这在中国科技史乃世界科技史上都是一个罕见的奇迹。然而，金属飞雁的可信程度确实令国人捏把汗。假若仔细推敲，立即就会看出这个传说的破绽之处。试想一个金属物体在空中飞翔并不象放风筝和轻气球那样简单易行。后者由于质量轻，它借助于自然界的风力就可以在空中飞翔，然而对于一个金属物体来说，它如果没有机械动力单靠自然界的风力，不要说空中飞行恐怕连起飞这个基本的难题也无法解决。2200年前的中国何以能解决金属物体的飞行动力问题呢？再进一步分析，假设秦代有能力制作会飞的金雁，那么金雁埋入地宫之后将会不停地自动飞翔，一直在地宫内飞行了近一千个日日夜夜。当项羽打开地宫的墓道时，这个自动飞翔的金雁又沿着地宫的墓道顺利地飞出地面，然后又越过秦陵南侧数千米高的山峰飞往遥远的南方。如果这个奇闻不是闲聊文人编造出来的说，那么，金雁的控制与指挥系统恐怕连今天的电脑也望尘莫及了。所以，我们可以肯定说秦陵金属飞雁的传说没有丝毫的可能性，具有现代科技意识的中国人切勿轻信这个传说了。

金雁传说的辨误问题到此应该结束了。然而进一步来说古代文人编造的这个传说故事在历史文献上有没有一点蛛丝马迹呢？汉代有关的文献记载，在司马迁和班固的记述中有“黄金为凫雁”的文字，显然两位史学大师记载的是墓内有用黄金制作的“凫雁”，而古代文人很可能由此演义和“创作”了飞雁传说的故事。

[编辑本段]陵墓为何选在骊山之阿？

战国时期一些国君陵园的营造往往都少不了平面设计图。秦始皇陵园的营建按理也应该有平面规划图，而制图之前先要选择墓地。我们知道秦始皇执政于都城咸阳，为什么陵园却要选在远离咸阳的骊山之阿？

查阅有关典籍，最早解释这个问题的是北魏时期《水经注》的作者郦道元。他说：“秦始皇大兴厚葬，营建冢圹于骊戎之山，一名蓝田，其阴多金，其阳多美玉，始皇贪其美名，因而葬焉”（《水经·渭水注》）。此说在学界延袭千余年，并且被认为是最早的、最权威性的观点而深信莫疑。《水经注》的解释单从表面上看似乎不无道理，然而仔细回味起来秦始皇当年作为一个13岁的孩童能否知道蓝田的美金与美玉还是个问题。即使知道，当年选择陵墓位置恐怕也不会按照一个徒具空名的国王个人意志来决定。所以这个问题似乎应该从当时的礼制及陵墓的设计意图方面寻找答案。

首先，陵墓位置的确立与秦国前几代国君墓的位置不无关系。秦始皇先祖及太后的陵园葬在临漳县以西的芷阳一带，秦始皇陵园选在芷阳以东的骊山之阿是当时的礼制所决定的，因为古代帝王陵墓往往按照生前居住时的尊卑、上下排列。《礼记》、《尔雅》等书记载。“南向、北向、西方为上”。“西南隅谓这奥，尊长之处也”。东汉《论衡》一书记载得更明白了：“夫西方，长者之地，尊者之位也，尊者在西，卑幼在东……夫墓，死人所藏；田，人所饮食；宅，人所居处，三者于人，去凶宜等。”即在芷阳的宣太后也希望其陵墓能葬在她丈夫与儿子之间，即“西望吾夫，东望吾子”，似乎亦是按长者在西、晚辈居东的原则。秦始皇先祖已确知葬在芷阳的有昭襄王、庄襄王和宣太后。既然先祖墓均葬在临漳县以西，而作为晚辈的秦始皇只能埋在芷阳以东了。作壁上观若将陵墓定在芷阳以西，显然有悖于传统礼制。可见秦始皇陵园选在骊山脚下完全符合晚辈居东的礼制。

其次，陵墓位置的选择也与当时“依山造陵”的观念相关。大约自春秋时代开始，各诸侯国国君相继兴起了“依山造陵”的风气。许多国君墓不是背山面河，就是面对视野开阔的平原，甚至有的国君墓干脆建在山颠之上，以显示生前的崇高地位和皇权的威严。春秋时期的秦公墓也受这种观念的影响，有的“葬西山”，有的葬在陵山附近。战国时期的秦公墓依然承袭了“依山造陵”的典范，而秦始皇陵墓造在骊山之阿也完全符合“依山造陵”的传统观念。它背靠骊山、面向渭水，而且这一带有着优美的自然环境。整个骊山唯有临潼县东至马额这一段山脉海拔较高，山势起伏，层峦叠幛。从渭河北岸远远眺去，这段山脉左右对称，似一巨大的屏风立于始皇陵后，站在陵顶南望，这段山脉又呈弧形，陵位于骊山峰峦环抱之中，与整个骊山浑然一体。

总之，秦始皇陵园的位置既符合晚辈居东的礼制，也体现了“依山造陵”的传统观念。

秦始皇陵位于临撞县城东5公里，距西安市约37公里，南倚骊 山，北临渭水。为什么选位在这里呢?有人认为，这与古人迷信风水宝地是分不开的。近年来，地质学家根据卫星拍照的图片看:从骄山到华山工好像一条龙，秦始皇陵正好位于龙头眼睛的位置。众所周知，自古就有“画龙点睛”之说，到底是古人有“高瞻远瞩”的本领，还是今人附会之风过重，一时间还弄不清楚。

秦始皇陵墓近似方形，顶部平坦，腰略呈阶梯形，高76米，东西长345米，南北宽350米，占地120750平方米。

根据初步考察，陵园分内城和外城两部分。内城呈方形，周长3000米左右，北墙有2门，东、西、南3墙各有1门。外城呈矩形，周长6200余米，四角各有门址一处。内、外城之间有葬马坑、珍禽异兽坑、陶桶坑;陵外有马厩坑、人殉坑、刑徒坑、修陵人员墓葬400多个，范围广及56·25平方公里。陵墓地宫中心是安放秦始皇棺椁的地方。

1974年以来，在陵园东1·5公里处发现从葬兵马俑坑三处，成品字形排列，面积共达20000平方米以上，出土陶桶8000件、战车百乘以及数万件实物兵器等文物。其中一号坑埋葬着和真人真马同大的陶佰、陶马约6000件;二号坑有陶桶、陶马1300余件，战车89辆;三号坑有武士桶68个，战车1辆，陶马4匹。

1980年又在陵园西侧出土青铜铸大型车马2乘。这组彩绘铜车马高车和安车，是迄今中国发现的体形最大、装饰最华丽、结构和系驾最逼真、最完整的古代铜车马，被誉为“青铜之冠”。

秦始皇陵园除从葬坑外，还发现石料加工场的遗址，建筑遗物有门砧、柱础、瓦、脊、瓦当、石水道、陶水道等。

秦始皇陵规模之大可见一斑，但秦始皇陵有没有设计蓝图呢? 。

据史书所说“使水相斯将天下刑人徒隶七十二万人作陵，凿以章程”来看，秦始皇陵的修建绝非任意，必定是按设计图有计划地营造，纵观历代帝王陵建造史不难想象其中的关联之处。具体设计蓝图如何，还在进一步研究之中。

是谁主持了秦始皇陵的修建呢? 。

据推测，少府是主管建筑的，国家陵墓当由其管理。当然最高的管理上级还是本相，只是本相日理万机，由少府具体操作办理而已。不过，这里还有一个问题，那就是少府一官是秦统一后命名的，在统一之前有无这一官职无从考证，但无论有无，肯定有一种机构专管宫廷的土木建筑工程。至于这一机构名称如何，尚待进一步考证。

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"2011 Miyagi earthquake" redirects here. For the aftershock that occurred on 6 April, see April 2011 Miyagi earthquake.。

2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami。

东日本大震灾

An aerial view of damage in the Tōhoku region with black smoke coming from the Nippon Oil Sendai oil refinery 。

Peak tsunami wave height locations, color-coded with red representing most severe 。

Date 14:46:23, 11 March 2011 (+09:00) 。

Duration 6 minutes[1] 。

Magnitude 9.0 Mw[2][3] 。

Depth 32 km (20 mi) 。

Epicenter 38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E / 38.322°N 142.369°E / 38.322; 142.369Coordinates: 38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E / 38.322°N 142.369°E / 38.322; 142.369 。

Type Megathrust earthquake 。

Countries or regions Japan (primary)。

Pacific Rim (tsunami, secondary) 。

Total damage Tsunami wave, flooding, landslides, fires, building and infrastructure damage, nuclear incidents including radiation releases 。

Peak acceleration 3.0 g 。

Tsunami Yes. Up to 40.5 m (133 ft)。

in Miyako, Iwate, Tōhoku 。

Landslides Yes 。

Foreshocks 7

Aftershocks 1,235 。

Casualties 15,760 deaths,[4][5] 5,927 injured,[4][5] 4,282 people missing[4][5] 。

The 2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Tohoku, also known as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake or the Great East Japan Earthquake,[6][7] (Japanese: "Eastern Japan Great Earthquake Disaster" (东日本大震灾, Higashi Nihon Daishinsai?)[fn 1]) was a magnitude 9.0 (Mw) undersea megathrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) on 神码, 11 March 2011,[2][3][8] with the epicenter approximately 70 kilometres (43 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku and the hypocenter at an underwater depth of approximately 32 km (20 mi).[2][9] It was the most powerful known earthquake to have hit Japan, and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900.[8][10][11] It was so powerful the island of Honshu was moved 8 feet eastward. The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to 40.5 metres (133 ft) in Miyako, Iwate, Tōhoku.[12][13] In some cases traveling up to 10 km (6 mi) inland.[where?][14] In addition to loss of life and destruction of infrastructure, the tsunami caused a number of nuclear accidents, primarily the ongoing level 7 meltdowns at three reactors in the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant complex, and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.[15][16]。

Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan."[17] The Japanese National Police Agency has confirmed 15,760 deaths,[4][5] 5,927 injured,[4][5] and 4,282 people missing[4][5] across eighteen prefectures, as well as over 125,000 buildings damaged or destroyed.[4][5] The earthquake and tsunami caused extensive and severe structural damage in Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse.[14][18] Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water.[19] Many electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors suffered explosions due to hydrogen gas that had built up within their outer containment buildings after cooling system failure. Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6.2 mi) radius of the Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated. In addition, the U.S. recommended that its citizens evacuate up to 80 km (50 mi) of the plant.[20]。

Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6 billion.[21] The Bank of Japan offered ¥15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on 14 March in an effort to normalize market conditions.[22] The overall cost could exceed US$300 billion, making it the most expensive natural disaster on record.[23][24][25]。

The earthquake moved Honshu 2.4 m (8 ft) east and shifted the Earth on its axis by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in).[26][27][28]。

日本英文介绍

Sichuan is China’s mountainous provinces in the country. Mountain, plateau and the hills about the province’s land area of 97.46 percent, with the exception of the Sichuan Basin at the bottom of the plains and hills, the most of Valley Ridge 500 meters in elevation above. The lowest in the eastern part of the Yangtze River Three Gorges Project, only 70 meters above sea level, while the western Gongga Mountain is the highest of 7556 meters, 7400 meters above difference, the disparity between surface and downs in China, only in Tibet, Xinjiang comparable. 。

Sichuan’s climate is complicated and changeable. The west is the West Sichuan Plateau, the eastern part of the Sichuan Basin. Plateau covers an area of two-thirds of the province, covering an area of about 360,000 square km, the basin is only more than 200,000 square km. Including western Sichuan Aba, Ganzi, three Liangshan Autonomous Prefecture, adjacent to the eastern part of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, are at an altitude of 3000 meters. A vertical mountain gorge features climate, high altitude mountain天寒, when winter temperatures of about minus 20 Celsius degrees to a second, and the winter as long as long as five and a half months. June to September is the rainy season, November to March is the dry season the following year. Midday during the dry season temperatures can reach 32 degrees Celsius. Plateau has more than six hours of sunshine, blue sky background, grass trees, scenic. Belong there Siguniang Mountain Jiuzhaigou, Huanglong, Leshan Emeishan mountain ridgeThree Gorges Hailuogou Ruoergai - Aba Chengdu red tourism, such as peripheral JIANMENGUAN 50 tourist attractions. 0。

Chief: Xiaman 5 areas, 3 autonomous prefectures, 13 cities, 18 county-level cities, 124 counties and 3 autonomous counties. 。

Geographic: Sichuan Province is located in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. Longitude 97 ° 22’-110 ° 10 ’, latitude 26 ° 03’-34 ° 20’. An area of 567,000 square km, mountains and plateaus account for 78.82%. Western Sichuan for the plateau, and the rest for the Sichuan Basin. 7 areas of Sichuan province’s jurisdiction, 3 autonomous prefectures, 13 cities, 18 county-level cities, 150 counties, 8 counties, with an area of nearly 57 million square kilometers, accounting for 6% of land area, is second only to Xinjiang, Tibet, Inner Mongolia and Qinghai province. Population of 112,140,000. In addition to the Han nationality, there are 52 ethnic minorities, of which the Yi, Tibetan, Tujia, Miao, Qiang, Hui, Mongolian, Manchu, a large number Lisu.。

Japan (日本 Nihon or Nippon, officially 日本国 Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku) is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters which make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes identified as the "Land of the Rising Sun".。

Japan is comprised of over 3,000 islands[5] making it an archipelago. The largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for 97% of Japan's land area. Most of the islands are mountainous, many volcanic; for example, Japan’s highest peak, Mount Fuji, is a volcano. Japan has the world's tenth largest population, with about 128 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.。

Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the first century A.D. Influence from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. Since adopting its constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament, the Diet.。

Japan is a country of over three thousand islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaidō, Honshū (the main island), Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are a chain of islands south of Kyushū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago.。

About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous,[39][40] and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use. This is because of the generally steep elevations, climate and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.[41]。

Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century.[42] The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.[43]。

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south.[44] Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:。

Hokkaidō: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter. 。

Sea of Japan: On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, because of the foehn wind phenomenon. 。

Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light. 。

Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year. 。

Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. 。

Ryukyu Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common. 。

The highest temperature ever measured in Japan — 40.9 degrees Celsius — was recorded on August 16, 2007.[45]。

The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.[44]。

Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[46]。

From 1868, Meiji period launched economic expansion. Meiji rulers embraced the concept of a free market economy and adopted British and North American forms of free enterprise capitalism. Japanese went to study overseas and Western scholars were hired to teach in Japan. Many of today's enterprises were founded at the time. Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia.。

From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called a "Japanese miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s and a 4% average in the 1980s.[53] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s, largely because of the after-effects of Japanese asset price bubble and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000.[54] The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.[55]。

The Minato Mirai 21 district of Yokohama. The majority of Japan's economy is service sector based.Japan is the second largest economy in the world,[56] after the United States, at around US$4.5 trillion in terms of nominal GDP[56] and third after the United States and China in terms of purchasing power parity.[57] Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, telecommunications and construction are all major industries.[58] Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the largest, leading and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles and processed foods.[54] The service sector accounts for three quarters of the gross domestic product.。

As of 2001, Japan's shrinking labor force consisted of some 67 million workers.[59] Japan has a low unemployment rate, around 4%. Japan's GDP per hour worked is the world's 19th highest as of 2007.[60] Big Mac Index shows that Japanese workers get the highest salary per hour in the world. Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota Motor, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Sony, Nintendo, Nippon Steel, Tepco, Mitsubishi Estate, and 711.[61] It is home to some of the world's largest banks and the Tokyo Stock Exchange, known for Nikkei 225, stands as the second largest in the world by market capitalization.[62] Japan is home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3% (as of 2006).。

Nagoya has high industrial power like automative industry.Japan ranks 12th of 178 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index 2008 and it has one of the smallest governments in the developed world. Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features. Keiretsu enterprises are influential. Lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are relatively common in Japanese work environment.[63][64] Japanese companies are known for management methods such as "The Toyota Way". Shareholder activism is rare.[65] Recently, Japan has moved away from some of these norms.[66][67] In the Index of Economic Freedom, Japan is the 5th most laissez-faire of 30 Asian countries.[68]。

Japan's exports amounted to 4,210 U.S. dollars per capita in 2005. Japan's main export markets are the United States 22.8%, the European Union 14.5%, China 14.3%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 6.8% and Hong Kong 5.6% (for 2006). Japan's main exports are transportation equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[54] Japan's main import markets are China 20.5%, U.S. 12.0%, the European Union 10.3%, Saudi Arabia 6.4%, UAE 5.5%, Australia 4.8%, South Korea 4.7% and Indonesia 4.2% (for 2006). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries.[69] By market share measures, domestic markets are the least open of any OECD country.[64] Junichiro Koizumi administration commenced some pro-competition reforms and foreign investment in Japan has soared recently.[70]。

Japan's business culture has many indigenous concepts such as nemawashi, nenko system, salaryman, and office lady. Japan's housing market is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas. This is particularly true for Tokyo, the world's largest urban agglomeration GDP. More than half of Japanese live in suburbs or more rural areas, where detached houses are the dominant housing type. Agricultural businesses in Japan often utilize a system of terrace farming and crop yields are high. 13% of Japan's land is cultivated. Japan accounts for nearly 15% of the global fish catch, second only to China.[54] Japan's agricultural sector is protected at high cost.[71]。

Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jōmon culture to its contemporary culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, Budō, architecture, gardens, swords) and cuisine. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a typically Japanese comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.[108] Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have prospered since the 1980s.[109]。

Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.[110] Western music, introduced in the late nineteenth century, now forms an integral part of the culture. Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European modern music, which has led to the evolution of popular band music called J-pop.[111]。

Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity. A November 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional cultural pursuits such as flower arranging or tea ceremony.[112]。

A Japanese gardenThe earliest works of Japanese literature include two history books the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki and the eighth century poetry book Man'yōshū, all written in Chinese characters.[113] In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[114] An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book written by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki is often described as the world's first novel. During the Edo period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the chōnin, the ordinary people. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship.[114] The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors — Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburo Oe (1994).。

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