appendix-190

MSK-IMPACT 技术文档

常用化学危险品贮存通则(GB 15603-1995)。

国家技术监督局1995－07－26批准 1996－02－01实施。

1 主题内容与适用范围

本标准规定了常用化学危险品（以下简称化学危险品）储存的基本要求。

本标准适用于常用化学危险品（以下简称化学危险品）出入库、贮存及养护。

2 引用标准

GB J16 建筑设计防火规范。

GB 190 危险货物包装标志。

GB 13690 常用危险化学品的分类与标志。

3 术语

3•1 隔离储存：Segregated storage。

在同一房间或同一区域内、不同的物料之间分开一定距离，非禁忌物料间用通道保持空间的储存方式。

3•2 隔开贮存：Cut－off storage。

在同一建筑或同一区域内，用隔板或墙，将其与禁忌物料分离开的储存方式。

3•3 分离储存：Detached storage。

贮存在不同的建筑物或远离所有建筑的外部区域内的贮存方式。

3•4 禁忌物料：Incinpatible inaterals。

化学性质相抵触或灭火方法不同的化学物料。

4 化学危险品储存的基本要求。

4•1 贮存化学危险品必须遵照国家法律、法规和其他有关的规定。

4•2 化学危险品必须储存在经公安部门批准设置的专门的化学危险品仓库。

中，经销部门自管仓库储存化学危险品及贮存数量必须经公安部门批准。未经批准不得随意设置化学危险品贮存仓库。

4•3 化学危险品露天堆放，应符合防火、防爆的安全要求，爆炸物品、一级易燃物品、遇湿燃烧物品、剧毒物品不得露天堆放。

4•4 储存化学危险品的仓库必须配备有专业知识的技术人员，其库房及场所应设专人管理，管理人员必须配备可靠的个人安全防护用品。

4•5 化学危险品按国家标准 GB13690的规定分为八类：

a. 爆炸品；

b. 压缩气体和液化气体；

c. 易燃液体；

d. 易燃固体、自燃物品和遇湿易燃物品；

e. 氧化剂和有机过氧化物；

f. 毒害品；

g. 放射性物品；

h. 腐蚀品。

4•6 标志

储存的化学危险品应有明显的标志，标志应符合 GB 190的规定。 同一区域贮存两种两种以上不同级别的危险品时，应按最高等级危险物品的性能标志。

4•7 储存方式

化学危险品储存方式分为三种。

a. 隔离储存；

b. 隔开储存；

c. 分离储存。

4•8 根据危险品性能分区、分类、分库储存。

各类危险品不得与禁忌物料混合储存，禁忌物料配置见附录A。

4•9 储存化学危险品的建筑物、区域内严禁吸烟和使用明火。

5 储存场所要求

5•1 储存化学危险品建筑物不得有地下室或其他地下建筑，其耐火等级、层数、占地面积、安全疏散和防火间距，应符合国家有关规定。

5•2 储存地点及建筑结构的设置，除了应符合国家的有关规定外，还应考虑对周围环境和居民的影响。

5•3 储存场所的电气安装。

5•3•1 化学危险品储存建筑物、场所消防用电设备应能充分满足消防用电的需要；并符合GB J 16第十章第一节的有关规定。

5•3•2 化学危险品储存区域或建筑物内输配电线路、灯具、火灾事故照明和疏散指示标志，都应符合安全要求。

5•3•3 贮存易燃、易爆化学危险品的建筑，必须安装避雷设备。

5•4 储存场所通风或温度调节。

5•4•1 储存化学危险品的建筑必须安装通风设备，并注意设备的防护措施。

5•4•2 储存化学危险品的建筑通排风系统应设有导除静电的接地装置。

5•4•3 通风管应采用非燃烧材料制作。

5•4•4 通风管道不宜穿过防火墙等防火分隔物，如必须穿过时应用非燃烧材料分隔。

5•4•5 储存化学危险品建筑采暖的热媒温度不应过高，热水采暖不应超过80℃，不得使用蒸汽采暖和机械采暖。

5•4•6 采暖管道和设备的保温材料，必须采用非燃烧材料。

6 储存安排及储存量限制

6•1 化学危险品储存安排取决于化学危险品分类、分项、容器类型、储存方式和消防的要求。

6•2 储存量及储存安排见表1。

6•3 遇火、遇热、遇潮能引起燃烧、爆炸或发生化学反应，产生有毒气体的化学危险品不得在露天或在潮湿、积水的建筑物中储存。

6•4 受日光照射能发生化学反应引起燃烧、爆炸、分解、化合或能产生有毒气体的化学危险品应储存在一级建筑物中。其包装应采取避光措施。

6•5 爆炸物品不准和其它类物品同贮，必须单独隔离限量储存，仓库不准建在城镇，还应与周围建筑、交通干道、输电线路保持一定安全距离。

6•6 压缩气体和液化气体必须与爆炸物品、氧化剂、易燃物品、自燃物品、腐蚀性物品隔离储存。易燃气体不得与助燃气体、剧毒气体同储；氧气不得与油脂混合储存，盛装液化气体的容器属压力容器的，必须有压力表、安全阀、紧急切断装置，并定期检查，不得超装。

6•7 易燃液体、遇湿易燃物品、易燃固体不得与氧化剂混合储存，具有还原性的氧化剂应单独存放。

6•8 有毒物品应储存在阴凉、通风、干燥的场所，不要露天存放，不要接近酸类物质。

6•9 腐蚀性物品，包装必须严密，不允许泄漏，严禁与液化气体和其它物品共存。

表1。

贮存类别 露天贮存 隔离贮存 隔开贮存 分离贮存。

贮存要求

平均单位面积贮存量，t/m2 1．0~1．5 0．5 0．7 0．7。

单一贮存区最大贮量，t 2000~2400 200~300 200~300 400~600。

垛距限制，m 2 0．3~0．5 0．3~0．5 0．3~0．5。

通道宽度，m 4~6 1~2 1~2 5。

墙距宽度，m 2 0．3~0．5 0．3~0．5 0．3~0．5。

与禁忌品距离，m 10 不得同库贮存 不得同库贮存 7~10。

7 化学危险品的养护

7•1 化学危险品入库时，应严格检验商品质量、数量、包装情况、有无泄漏。

7•2 化学危险品入库后应采取适当的养护措施，在储存期内，定期检查，发现其品质变化、包装破损、渗漏、稳定剂短缺等，及时处理。

7•3 库房温度、温度应严格控制、经常检查，发现变化及时调整。

8 化学危险品出入库管理

8•1 储存化学危险品的仓库，必须建立严格的出入库管理制度。

8•2 化学危险品出入库前均应按合同进行检查验收、登记，验收内容包括：

a. 商品数量；

b. 包装；

c. 危险标志。

经核对后方可入库、出库，当商品性质未弄清时不得入库。

8•3 进入化学危险品储存区域的人员、机动车辆和作业车辆，必须采取防火措施。

8•4 装卸、搬运化学危险品时应按有关规定进行，做到轻装、轻卸。严禁摔、碰、撞击、拖拉、倾动和滚动。

8•5 装卸对人身有害及腐蚀性的物品时，操作人员应根据危险性，穿戴相应的防护用品。

8•6 不得用同一车辆运输互为禁忌的物料。

8•7 修补、换装、清扫、装卸易燃、易爆物料时，应使用不产生火花的铜制、合金制或其他工具。

9 消防措施

9•1 根据危险品特性和仓库条件，必须配置相应的消防设备、设施和灭火药剂，并配备经过培训的兼职和专职的消防人员。

9•2 储存化学危险品建筑内应根据仓库条件安装自动监测和火灾报警系统。

9•3 贮存化学危险品的建筑物内，如条件允许，应安装灭火喷淋系统（遇水燃烧化学危险品，不可用水扑救的火灾除外），其喷淋强度和供水时间如下：

喷洒强度：15L／min m2。

持续时间: 90min。

10 废弃物处理

10•1 禁止在化学危险品储存区域内堆积可燃废弃物品。

10•2 泄漏或渗漏危险品的包装容器应迅速移至安全区域。

10•3 按化学危险品特性，用化学的或物理的方法处理废弃物品，不得任意抛弃、污染环境。

11 人员培训

11•1 仓库工作人员应进行培训，经考试合格后持证上岗。

11•2 对化学危险品的装卸人员进行必要的教育，使其按照有关规定进行操作。

11•3 仓库的消防人员除了具有一般消防知识之外，还应进行在危险品库工作的专门培训，使其熟悉各区域贮存的化学危险品种类、特性、贮存地点、事故的处理程序及方法。

化学危险物品经营许可证发放办法。

(商五联字 第2号)

第一条 为加强化学危险品在流通过程中的安全管理、保障国家财产和人民生命财产安全，根据《化学危险品安全管理条例》第二十八、二十九、三十条的规定，制定本办法。

第二条 本办法适用于中华人民共和国境内经营化学危险物品的任何经济组织。

第三条 化学危险物品经营许可证（简称经营许可证、下同）是从事化学危险物品的采购、调拨、销售活动的合法凭证。任何企业经营化学危险物品，都必须依照本办法规定程序申请并取得经营许可证。

国家严禁无证经营化学危险物品。

第四条 本办法所指化学危险物品， 系指中华人民共和国国家标准GB6944-86《危险货物分类与品名编号》规定的分类标准中的爆炸品， 压缩气体和液化气体，易燃液体，易燃固体，自燃物品和遇湿易燃物品，氧化剂和有机过氧化物，毒害品，腐蚀品七大类。

放射性物品，民用爆物品，兵器工业的火药、弹药、火工产品，核能物资，剧毒物品及国家法律、法规有专门规定的其他物品，均按国家有关规定执行。

第五条 申请经营许可证的企业，必须履行下列程序：

（一）填写“化学危险物品经营许可证申请表”，并与营业执照等有关文件或其副本一并提交所在地县级以上（含县级，下同）该企业主管部门；

（二）企业主管部门接到企业申请表后，应于十天内签署意见，并转报所在地县级以上商业局（其中物资企业经营化工物资报所在地区物资管理部门，医药企业经营化学试剂报所在地区医药管理部门）和公安机关；

（三）商业局（包括物资、医药管理部门）接到企业申请表和主管部门的签署意见后，应会同县级以上公安机关等有关部门，于十五日联合审查，对符合条件的，各审查单位签署意见盖章后，由省、自治区、直辖市商业厅（局）会同公安等有关部门审定由商业厅（局） （上海市由物资局）核发经营许可证。

第六条 企业所在地县以上商业局和物资、医药管理部门会同公安机关等有关部门审查经营化学危险物品的企业是否具备下列条件：

（一）有符合安全规范的经营设施。营业场所、仓库、运输及装卸工具等经营设施，必须符合消防法规和其它有关规定。

（二）有熟悉专业的技术人员。根据企业经营规模，年经营化工原料或化学试剂金额在一亿元以上的企业，必须配备有本专业的大专学历工程师、经济师等业务技术人员。年经营化工原料或化学试剂金额在一亿以下的企业，必须配备有中专以上或相当于中专化学专业学历的业务技术人员。或具有本专业十年以上经营化学危险品经验的业务技术人员。从事经营和储运、装卸化学危险物品的人员必须经过安全知识的专业培训。

（三）有相应的安全管理制度。包括安全经营责任制，安全操作规程，商品出入库安全检查制度，定期盘点制度及相应的安全管理组织。

第七条 凡经营化学危险物品的企业，包括新建、扩建、改建的企业，必须持工商行政管理机关颁发的经营范围注明主营化工原料（化学试剂）的营业执照申领经营许可证。

第八条 不符合第五、六、七条规定的不予核发经营许可证。没有领取经营许可证的企业，一律不准经营化学危险物品。违者由工商行政管理机关会同商业部门、公安机关依法查处。

第九条 企业取得经营许可证后，两年内没有经营化学危险品的，该经营许可证自动失效。未经重新申请取得经营许可证，不得经营化学危险品。

第十条 省、自治区直辖市商业厅（局）应结合当地工商行政管理机关对企业的年检工作，每年会同工商行政管理等有关部门对经营许可证进行复查，并将复查情况报商业部，抄送有关部门。

第十一条 除按国家规定允许生产企业工业自销的部分外，任何工业、商业、物资等企业均不得将化学危险物品供应、赠送或转让给无经营许可证的经营企业。

第十二条 本办法由中华人民共和国商业部负责解释。

第十三条 各省、自治区、直辖市商业厅（局）可会同有关部门根据《化学危险物品安全管理条例》及本办法，结合当地实际情况，制订相应的实施办法，并报经当地政府审批后执行。

第十四条 本办法自通知之日起施行。

熊猫！！（英语）

MSK-IMPACT (Integrated Mutation Profiling of Actionable Cancer Targets) 是美国纪念斯隆卡特琳癌症中心（MSK）的一款 NGS 大panel 产品，自2014年1月起被 MSK 用于制定晚期癌症患者的治疗方案。该Panel 一直进行迭代升级，涵盖基因数量也一直在增长，由2014年的341个基因，到2017年的468个基因，之后又增加了新的肿瘤驱动基因、与免疫治疗及克隆性相关的基因到2020年的已包括505个基因。MSK-IMPACT™于2017年11月16日通过FDA批准，成为第一款通过审批检测组织多癌种多基因的大Panel 产品。

MSK-IMPACT 通过对肿瘤组织 FFPE 样本和 Normal 样本进行 Panel 捕获、NGS测序及生信分析检测，可以广泛检测基因组中的肿瘤基因突变。它采用的测序平台是Illumina HiSeq™ 2500 Sequencer (qualified by MSK)，检测的突变类型有 SNVs、INDEL（<30bp）、MSI，不能检测CNVs、重排和TMB 。本篇文章主要对通过FDA审批 468 个基因版本的MSK-IMPACT 技术细节进行汇总介绍。

。

附表Appendix 1a 列出了MSK-IMPACT的检测热点，附表Appendix 1b 列出了468个基因和相应的转录本信息，附表Appendix 1c 列出了73个Panel 覆盖深度低，不进行报出的基因和外显子区域信息。

质控要求肿瘤细胞含量大于10%，切片含量大于20%，MSI检测肿瘤细胞含量大于25%。

略

利用纯合位点一致性对来自同一样本的Normal样品和Tumor样品的配对情况进行检测，可以预期配对样品纯合位点不一致性较低（<5%）,不配对样品纯合位点不一致性较高（在25%附近）。如果配对样品纯和位点不一致水平较高（>5%）,则被标记为“可能不配对”类型。

检测杂合位点不同等位基因的频率，如果频率异常，对样品进行标记为“可能污染”类型。

Normal样品中不应该含有SNVs、INDEL。分析流程会对Normal样品中的变异热点进行检测，如果有热点的变异频率>1%,对样品进行标记。

SNVs( MuTect 软件) 和 INDELs( SomaticIndelDetector 软件) CALL变异流程需要 Normal 和 Tumor 配对样品，如果缺少Normal样品或者Normal样品的平均测序深度较低（<50X）, 则从批处理样品中选择一个Normal样品作为对照。

对NC样品分析用于确定没有污染以及对PC样品分析用于保证分析的灵敏度。

Tumor 样品质控要求 98% 的外显子覆盖深度大于200X，配对Normal样品深度大于50X。

原始SNV 和INDEL 突变需要经过下面一系列的过滤来保证报出突变的准确性。

（1） VFtumor/VFnormal >=5，AD>=5,VF>=1%。

（2） 突变是否在热点突变库中，Appendix 1a 为热点列表。

（3） 热点： DP>=20,AD>=8,VF>=2%;非热点：DP>=20,AD>=10,VF>=5%。

（4） 过滤注释结果，保留位于外显子区域的非同义突变，移码突变。

利用 MSIsensor 软件计算 MSK-IMPACT 覆盖的所有MSI位点的状态。MSIsensor会计算出一个score,如果阈值大于10，标记为MSI-H。

病人组织或者外周血作为Normal样品，如果使用分批中不配对的Normal样品，可能会有一些稀有的胚系突变被当做体细胞突变。

阳性对照是3个阳性样品（3个样品各自含有不同的类型和频率的突变信息）的混合，阳性对照的normal样品是统一批次Normal样品的混合，经过流程分析后，检验分析的结果。（1）已知的突变是否检出（2）检出的突变频率和原始样品的突变频率是否一致，Table2是已知的突变频率的样本。

阴性控制样本是以前的重复试验证实的没有肿瘤污染和没有胚系拷贝数突变的FFPE正常样品的混合物。以前的分析已经确定了正常样品特有多态性和频率，将流程产生的862个SNP的突变频率和预期的突变频率进行比较，计算Pearson一致性。预期突变频率应该大于0.9。

No Template Control(NTC)。

样品质量控制度量：

。

这里计算所需要的覆盖深度都用到了功效分析（power analysis）的概念。

1a 外显子覆盖深度的确定：

当设定潜在最低检测线如2%时，可以通过功效分析可以计算出某显著水平下的reads的深度。比如当突变频率为10%时，500X深度95%置信区间下，突变频率的范围在7.5%和13%之间。

所以，将10个不相关的FFPE的Normal样本等摩尔的混合创造了一系列预设的突变频率，最低的突变频率为5%。然后用862个SNPs验证了预设的突变频率和真实突变频率之间的关系。最后试验数据支持使用5%作为报告检测到的突变的下限，实际潜在的频率为10%。

。

Run内和Run间设置重复，每个样品5个重复。

1a Panel 精密度验证（标准品的验证）

10个样本（9个FFPE样本，一个商业细胞系）代表不同的肿瘤类型，不同的突变类型（突变类型已知），不同的突变频率（突变频率已知）。

。

2b Panel精密度和重复性一致性验证（标准品的验证）

Table6在对已知的突变进行精密度评估时，也对重复样品检出的已知突变外的其他突变进行了重复一致性的验证。

5个重复样本检出的所有突变数目的一致性。

5个样品检出的突变频率的一致性。

Table7列出了10个测试样本（每个样本5次重复）精密度验证的结果。

。

LoD是某一种突变在所有的重复中，95%的重复都可以稳定的检测出的突变等位基因频率。 本部分就是验证假定突变的LoD。测试分为两个部分。第一部分是梯度稀释，确定可靠的最低突变频率；第二部分是在众多重复中，验证LoD.。

1a 梯度稀释

选择10个FFPE样本，各选择5个覆盖度最高的外显子和覆盖度最低的外显子。制备5-8个梯度稀释。

检出结果 Table10。

。

1a SNV/indel 变异方法的比较 。

MSK-IMPACT方法与MSK-IMPACT方法正交验证后的原始结果进行了比较。共检测了433个FFPE样本的20个基因的48个外显子，检出267个唯一的突变位点。433个样品中的已知突变共432个样品检测出，一个样品的EGFR基因的INSERT漏检。

检出的一致性Table15A-C.。

。

最终的MSK报告的突变分为两种：一种是具有临床意义的癌症突变，一种是具有潜在意义的癌症突变。

1a 临床样本的验证 。

MSK测试了超过一万例的晚期肿瘤患者，并将病历信息以及突变信息存储在了下列网站。

https://www.cbioportal.org/study/summary?id=msk_impact_2017 。

https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cdrh_docs/reviews/DEN170058.pdf。

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Name

Scientific name: Ailuiopodidae melanoleuca 。

Alias: Hua Hua Xiong Xiong Takekuma Silver Bear spent the first big raccoon dog-Mrs E Gasi bailiffs hole Leopard Meng Meng Yi Mo's Fresh beast tapir iron beast Pandas 。

English: Giant Panda 。

Categories

Carnivores (Carnivora) Bear Branch (Ursidae) panda subfamily (Ailurinae) 。

Endangered information 。

CITES: Appendix I 。

IUCN: Endangered 。

State protection levels: level 。

China's Red Book of endangered animals grading: Endangered 。

Shape Features 。

Giant panda Xiong body肥硕like, but the short end of the first round, his head and body coat color black and white clear. 。

Distribution

Only the upper reaches of the Yangtze River to China's Qinghai-Tibet Plateau deep alpine transition zone, including Qinling, Minshan, Qionglai Mountain, size and the size of Liangshan, etc. Ridge Mountains. Located in the south of the Qinling Mountains, is distributed mainly in Foping County, the general distribution of the Yangxian County, only a small amount of the distribution of county Taibai, Ningshan, weeks, etc.. Minshan of Gansu County, except for general distribution, the remaining are located in Sichuan. Sichuan mainly distributed in the county in Pingwu, Sichuan and Green Beichuan three counties, the general distribution of a Nanping, Songpan, Mau Timor, and other counties, a small amount of the distribution of county County, Mianzhu, Peng County, Shifang, and Dujiangyan City. Qionglai mountains are mainly distributed in Baoxing County, Wenchuan and Tianquan, a general distribution of Dayi and Lushan County, the only county with a small amount of Qionglai,崇庆, Kangding, Luding, etc.. Size of Mill Hongya and except for general distribution Mianning County, only a small amount of the distribution of Yingjing County, asbestos, Hanyuan, Kowloon. Size Liangshan addition Mabian, Meigu and the West have a certain number, only a small number of counties have甘洛, Ebian and Leibo, etc. (Pan Shi, 1988; Malaysian Yao, 1988; HU Jin-chu, 1985 ). Giant panda habitat and migratory habits of the mountains upstream of the Yangtze River deep mountains for the southeast monsoon wind surface, climate温凉humid, humidity often more than 80 percent, so they are a - hi moist animals. Their activities in the regional multi-Au ditch,山腹depression, valley terraces, usually in the 20 ° below the gentle slope terrain. These local soil hypertrophy, forest Maunsell, niitakayamensis grew well constitute a relatively stable temperature, good concealment conditions, food and water resources are abundant good food base. 。

Life Habits

In addition to estrus, often live alone Migratory life, and day and night trip. Nest domain area of 3.9-6.4 km2 volatile, and individual overlapping jurisdiction between the phenomenon of the nest, the nest of male domain slightly larger than female. Estrogen-only activities most of the time in 30 to 40 hectares of nuclear area, the female bodies in the nuclear domain do not overlap (HU Jin-chu, 1985). Food is the main mountain, subalpine about 50 kinds of bamboo, and even potable other plants, and even animal carcasses. Japanese appetite great day went to the drinking water springs or streams. Sexual maturity is 6.5-7.5, more than April estrus. In general was early September in the old trees in the farrowing nest hole, each child prolific 1 Aberdeen, occasionally producing 2 Aberdeen. With the baby after the mother left the mother of 18 months. The wild male and female sex ratio is about 1:1 (beam齐慧, 1993; Wen Wei Fu, 1994). 。

To risk factors 。

1, forest harvesting. Giant panda habitat area to the annual harvest of at least 10,000 hectares. Each of their habitat to about 2.5 km2 at the rate of disappearance (Kleiman et al, 1991). Nearly 30 years ago, Shaanxi, Gansu, and Sichuan Provinces distribution panda population in the area doubled to over 43 million people, large-scale logging enterprises since 1950-1985, a total of 27 (excluding县属logging Field), the harvesting of forest area to verify for more than 420,000 hectares, with an average annual logging area of over 20,000 hectares, resulting in habitat by the early 1970's 31,450 km2, and after 15 years, has dropped to 13921.52 km2 and reduce area of 17528.48 km2, accounting for the original habitat the 56 percent and caused six cutting the district Panda disappeared, 10 cutting the region only a handful of surviving panda, the sharp decline in population size (HU Jin-chu, 1993); 。

2, capturing too much. As in Wenchuan County grassland before liberation, Britain, the United States and other Western countries, then catch vivo acquisition of over 20 only (those killed outside), where the giant panda population which, to date more than 50 years, the number remains low, yet to return. Again宝兴县from 1963 to date, only one county to capture pandas reached 113 and above. From the mid-1950s, the giant pandas from the wild catch has been over 240 to display at home and abroad, which is concentrated in Baoxing 110 MS only, Ping Wu, more than 60 only, resulting in the two county population structure was damaged, a significant number of decreased (HU Jin-chu, 1993). According panda life table analysis, which a generation would take about 12 years, population growth is slow, such as large catch, even in the protection of a good situation, also take decades to restore; 。

3, and in recent years, the giant panda poaching smuggling hides were still occur from time to time; 。

4, the giant panda population distribution in more than 25 island isolated habitats. These isolated habitat area the size of 205 km2 (30-2384km range), the majority of whom (67%) of the area less than 350 km2 (Kleiman et al, 1991). This population of isolation and division is a long-term threat to its population of important factors, small groups of inbred recession phenomenon will reduce fecundity, larval survival and disease resistance. Ultimately "island" members will disappear. According to Pan, and others (1988) on the Qinling panda population genetic analysis, there are more than 200 giant pandas, can constitute a about 90 breeding groups, their generation hybrid rate decline rate was 0.54%, after 12 and after 140 years later, every member will have 1 / 8 of the same gene, or table (Church) brothers and sisters of the relationship; 。

5, due to human activities extend the scope of the giant pandas were forced to retreat to the Peak, a very simple bamboo species meet with a bamboo flowering, no room to maneuver, only 1975 Minshan region niitakayamensis flowering, the death of 138 over 1980's Qionglai Hill flowering cold niitakayamensis large area, the giant pandas disaster found the bodies 108, died 33 for a total 141 (HU Jin-chu, 1993); 。

6, in panda habitats exist without permission from the government of mineral development, pollution and the miners, tree felling and hunting is one of the threat (Kleiman et al, 1991). 。

Natural history 。

Giant panda is a unique black and white coat color with the lively animals. Its Latin name: Ailuropodamelanoleuca, it refers to the black and white appearance. The giant panda species is a controversial issue of a century: whether it belongs to Bear Branch, or as close as the Red Panda raccoon Branch, or a separate species? Recent DNA analysis indicates that giant pandas belonging to Bear Branch, a representative of the early Bear Branch branch. Adult pandas about 120-190 cm and weighing 85 to 125 kilograms. Unique features include: large and flat molars, it's a developed carpal has become a "pseudo-thumb" is to adapt to fresh bamboo for the living. Bear with other six different categories, pandas and sun bears are not hibernating behavior. 。

Food Properties 。

Panda very special recipes, including the almost alpine region can be found in the various bamboo, the pandas also occasionally carnivorous (usually animal body). Panda unique characteristics of the food it was the local people called "Bamboo Bear." Bamboo lack of nutrition, survival can only provide the basic nutritional requirements, the pandas adapt to a gradual evolution of the characteristics of this recipe. In the wild, in addition to sleep or short-range activities, daily feeding time for the giant pandas as long as 14 hours. A giant panda eating 12-38 kilograms of food per day, close to its body weight of 40%. Panda likes to eat bamboo most nutritious, containing cellulose least part of that Soft, shoots, and bamboo shoots. Giant panda habitat usually have at least two kinds of bamboo. When a bamboo flowering at the time of death (bamboo every 30-120 years will periodically flowering death), the giant pandas can turn feeding other bamboo. However, habitat fragmentation of the increased status within the habitat of bamboo may be only one, when such deaths bamboo, the pandas will be in the region face the threat of starvation. 。

Captive and social behavior 。

"Breeding difficulties" as news headlines to describe the propagation of the giant pandas situation. However, the study shows that although the wild giant pandas in captivity live longer state, but the wild, breeding success rate higher. In the wild, adult pandas regardless雄雌are involved in reproduction. Several female can fight duality and the male mating, but will be looking for a male in a different period of estrus females. In spring mating season 3-5 month, usually no more than 2-4 days. Pregnancy is about five months. Wild occasional twin circumstances, but generally only female panda feeding a cub. Captive populations, the twin of more. Before childbirth, female individuals find empty holes in tree roots and the production. Such shelters in the vicinity, and to stay on for three months, with its generous hand carefully care cub. Giant panda cub born very small, usually only 100-200 grams, there are only female bear the weight of 1 / 900. Panda cubs in the past few days to a month after the birth, the mother panda baby will be left in tree holes or holes out foraging. Mother beast sometimes leave two days or even longer. This does not mean that it abandoned baby, but the process of bringing up baby part of it is natural. Baby in the 12 months or so begun to eat bamboo, but in the meantime, they are completely dependent on his mother. Wild baby mortality rate lower than the pen, about 40 percent (Pan, and others, are being published). 。

Qinling region in the long-term study indicate that the giant panda breeding rate of about 0.654 baby / female / annual (Pan, and others, are produced), and North American natural population of brown bear some similar (Stringham1990). 。

Giant pandas are living animals, each adult domain clear of the nest, the male domain of individual nests are usually large, close to 30 square kilometers, general and the number of female individual nest domain overlap. When the nest male giant pandas in the same meet with each other jurisdictions, such as the estrus period of female pandas in the surrounding, and they have a clear hierarchy, will lead to an even struggle. The advantage of the individual male and female mating a priority, but there are also opportunities for other males. Female individual in 3-4 at the age of sexual maturity, individual and 5-year-old male around. Young male individual in the position in the lower grades, 7-8 at the age of a chance mating. From the 4-year-old female individual to the 20-year-old, usually once every 2-3 with an annual output of Aberdeen. Although the only giant panda family structure exists only less than 18 months and the mother of the beast between the baby panda will be between sounds and smells through regular exchanges, if not in estrus. One-year-old giant panda baby in about weaning, and has been to 18 months and mother together about his mother again until pregnancy. If not pregnant mother beast, and the baby lives with his mother to two-year-old half, it drove them off when the mother. After independence, most of the baby in the mother's nearby residence, others, especially female, will be living away from the place of birth. Giant pandas need to conduct further research. 。

Captive giant pandas can survive 30 or more, but the life span of wild giant pandas usually only about 20 years. 。

History

Fossils show that giant pandas ancestors appeared in 2-3 million years ago alluvial Ji early. Giant panda habitat in China had covered most of eastern and southern regions, the North of Beijing, the southern and south Vietnam in northern Myanmar (夏勒, 1993). Fossils are usually at an altitude of 500-700 meters in temperate or subtropical forest found. Giant panda habitat only in modern times and the tremendous changes occurred. Over the past few hundred years the Chinese occupation of the land and rapid population growth, many habitat disappeared. Previously, the giant panda had lived in low mountain valley, has now become settlements. Giant pandas only live in the bamboo can grow between elevation 1200-3400 meters. 。

The current distribution 。

The number of wild giant pandas in the end? This is a very difficult question to answer. Living in the high mountain areas on steep slopes of bamboo, the panda statistics become a very hard work. In the 1970s and 1980s have had two surveys, it is estimated that about 1,000 giant pandas field, this figure may be low. Panda regional distribution of the total 37 counties, if by the middle, and a small amount of the general three-tier division, the main producing counties each about 100 around the county, a total of seven counties; general production County each county about 50 more, a total of 11 This projection, the number of wild giant pandas more than 1,000 total only about 1, the number of captive about 100 AAAZPA Communique, 1993). Panda's net reproductive rate of 1.0672, slow population growth (Sichuan precious animal resources Investigation Team, 1977; Bifeng Chau, 1989). Panda Bear Branch family is the most rare, are also under the greatest threat to the survival of the mammals. Giant pandas live in the eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in southwest China's temperate forests, bamboo is the main understory plants here. Giant panda habitat on six separate mountains: the Qinling Mountains of Shaanxi, Gansu and Sichuan Minshan Mountains, the Qionglai, Sichuan, and the size of the Liangshan Mountain Ridge. The 1980s survey of the habitat area of about 13,000 square kilometers (Reid and Gong 1999). According to the State Forestry Bureau in 2005 investigation report has now confirmed Qinling giant panda population will be identified as a new subspecies of giant pandas. The giant pandas in Qinling pandas in Sichuan and geographical separation of five years has been long on the Qinling pandas head shape than round. At present the number of Qinling pandas have 273. In the Qinling mountains, in black and white pandas found in the brown pandas. 。

Classification dispute 。

The classification status of giant pandas has been more controversial, is to giant panda Xiong ancestors evolved from the class before the panda. Now the internationally recognized it as a Bear Branch, the giant panda subfamily classification, is also gradually domestic recognition. Domestic traditional panda will be a separate classification for the giant panda Branch.。

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