proprietarian

请把这段意大利语翻译成中文(其中的人名就算了),谢谢!

proprietary

adj.

1.Of or relating to a proprietor or to proprietors as a group: 。

所有人的：属于一个所有人或作为群体的所有人的，或与之有关的：proprietary rights.所有权2.Exclusively owned; private: 。

私有的：独家占有的；私人的：a proprietary hospital.一家私人医院。

3.Befitting an owner: 。

业主的：业主所特有的：a proprietary air.业主所特有的架子4.Owned by a private individual or corporation under a trademark or patent: 。

专卖的，专利的：在一个专利商标或专利权下由个人或企业所有的：a proprietary drug.一种专卖药n.（名词） 【复数】pro.pri.e.tar.ies 。

.1.A proprietor. 。

业主：所有人

2.A group of proprietors. 。

一群所有人

3.Ownership; proprietorship. 。

所有权：占有权；所有权

4.A proprietary medicine. 。

专卖药品

5.One granted ownership of a proprietary colony. 。

领主：独占某殖民地所有权的人

语源:1.From Middle English proprietarie [owner of property] 。

源自 中古英语 proprietarie [财产的占有者] 。

2.from Old French proprietaire。

源自 古法语 proprietaire。

3.and from Medieval Latin propriet³rius。

并源自 中世纪拉丁语 propriet³rius。

4.both from Late Latin [of a property owner] 。

都源自 后期拉丁语 [属于财产主人的] 。

5.from Latin propriet³s [ownership] * see property。

源自 拉丁语 propriet³s [占有权] *参见 property。

proprietor

n. 名词

1.One who has legal title to something; an owner. 。

业主：对某物有法定所有权的人；主人2.One who owns or owns and manages a business or other such establishment. 。

所有人：占有…的人，或占有而且经营一家公司或其他企业机构的人。

语源:

Probably alteration of Middle English proprietarie * see proprietary。

可能为 中古英语 proprietarie的变化 *参见 proprietary。

propriety

n.（名词） 【复数】pro.pri.e.ties。

1.The quality of being proper; appropriateness. 。

妥当：合适的特性；恰当

2.Conformity to prevailing customs and usages.See Synonyms at etiquette。

得体：与流行的习俗和习惯相一致参见 etiquette。

3.proprieties The usages and customs of polite society. 。

proprieties 礼节：文明社会的习俗和习惯。

语源:

1.Middle English propriete [particular character, ownership] 。

中古英语 propriete [特性；所有权] 。

2.from Old French * see property。

从可以看出，它们其实是一个语源。意思相关联，并非大相径庭。

求富兰克林自传 中英文对照版

给你译成英文吧，呵呵，太多了

Lawrence (Alessio Boni), young owner of a small jewelry, has a serene life with his/her beautiful family: the beloved wife Marta, waiting for the second-born and the small Luca of eight anni…s 。

Pietro (Claudio Amendola), mechanic in the shop of the future father-in-law, is trying instead to honestly reconstruct his/her life after having served the sentence for the only robbery tried eight years prima…, 。

Their lives different così is destined to dramatically cross him. 。

While Lawrence is in the bank, a dolt assaults the jewelry. The small Luca has a sudden gesture, the man loses the head, you/he/she shoots, Marta and his/her child stay I killed. An instant and the destroyed life of Lawrence è. 。

The signs bring Pietro. The auto of the robbery was in reparation in the shop where he/she works. Pietro feels the Police, he believes him in trap, you/he/she decides to run away. 。

Lawrence, destroyed by the pain, it has an only purpose: to find the assassin and to kill him/it. It begins così "the hunting" of a desperate man to another despaired man. 。

Pietro è gone to the north looking for the help of Aurora (Simona Cavallari) the beloved woman before the jail and, for this, lost. Together they will go to the search of Mario (Kaspar Capparoni), the ancient accomplice of the robbery of many years ago. 。

But Lawrence with lucidità and cold determination pursues him/it, footstep after footstep, hunts him/it, not the dàs Void tregua… succeeds in stopping him/it: nè the Police that, you realize his/her intentions, it pursues both, nè Tania (Andrew Osvart), youth and miserable person woman of the east. Lawrence by now it tries a solo impulse: the thirst of vendetta…

急!!求3000字关于举国体制的英文文献,高分!!

The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin is the traditional name for the unfinished record of his own life written by Benjamin Franklin from 1771 to 1790; however, Franklin himself appears to have called the work his Memoirs. Although it had a tortuous publication history after Franklin's death, this work has become one of the most famous and influential examples of autobiography ever written.。

Synopsis

Franklin's account of his life is divided into four parts, reflecting the different periods at which he wrote them. There are actual breaks in the narrative between the first three parts, but Part Three's narrative continues into Part Four without an authorial break (only an editorial one).。

Part one

Part One of the Autobiography is addressed to Franklin's son William, at that time (1771) the Royal Governor of New Jersey. While in England at the estate of the Bishop of St Asaph in Twyford, Ben Franklin begins by saying that it may be agreeable to his son to know some of the incidents of his father's life, so with a week's uninterrupted leisure, he is beginning to write them for William. He starts with some anecdotes of his grandfather, uncles, and father and mother. He deals with his childhood, his fondness of reading, and his serving as an apprentice to his brother James, a Boston printer and the publisher of the New England Courant. After improving his writing skills through study of the Spectator by Joseph Addison and Sir Richard Steele, he writes an anonymous paper and slips it under the door of the printing house by night. Not knowing its author, James and his friends praise the paper and it is published in the Courant, and this encourages Ben to produce more essays (the "Silence Dogood" essays) which are also published. When Ben reveals his authorship, James is angered, thinking the recognition from his papers will make Ben too vain. James and Ben have frequent disputes and Ben seeks for a way to escape James' service.。

Eventually James gets in trouble with the colonial assembly, which jails him for a short time and then forbids him to publish the paper any longer. James and his friends come up with the stratagem that the Courant should hereafter be published under the name of Benjamin Franklin, although James will still actually be in control. James signs a discharge of Ben's apprenticeship papers but writes up new private indenture papers for Ben to sign which will secure Ben's service for the remainder of the agreed time. But when a fresh disagreement arises between the brothers, Ben chooses to leave James, correctly judging that James will not dare to produce the secret indenture papers. ("It was not fair in me to take this Advantage," Franklin comments, "and this I therefore reckon one of the first Errata of my life.") James does, however, make it impossible for Ben to get work anywhere else in Boston. Sneaking onto a ship without his father's or brother's knowledge, Ben heads for New York, but the printer William Bradford is unable to employ him; however, he tells Ben that his son Andrew, a Philadelphia printer, may be able to use him as one of the son's principal employees had just died.。

By the time Ben reaches Philadelphia, Andrew Bradford has already replaced his employee, but refers him to Samuel Keimer, another printer in the city, who is able to give him work. The Governor, Sir William Keith, takes notice of Franklin and offers to set him up in business for himself. On Keith's recommendation, Franklin goes to London for printing supplies, but when he arrives, he finds that Keith has not written the promised letter of recommendation for him, and that "no one who knew him had the smallest Dependence on him." Franklin finds work in London until an opportunity arises of returning to Philadelphia as a merchant's assistant; but when the merchant takes ill, he returns to manage Keimer's shop. Keimer soon comes to feel that Franklin's wages are too high and provokes a quarrel which causes the latter to quit. At this point a fellow employee, Hugh Meredith, suggests that Franklin and he set up a partnership to start a printing shop of their own; this is subsidized by funds from Meredith's father, though most of the work is done by Franklin as Meredith is not much of a press worker and is given to drinking.。

They establish their business, and plan to start a newspaper, but when Keimer hears of this plan, he rushes out a paper of his own, the Pennsylvania Gazette. This publication limps along for three quarters of a year before Franklin buys the paper from Keimer and makes it "extremely profitable." (The Saturday Evening Post traces its lineage to Franklin's Pennsylvania Gazette.) The partnership also gains the printing for the Pennsylvania assembly. When Hugh Meredith's father experiences financial setbacks and cannot continue backing the partnership, two friends separately offer to lend Franklin the money he needs to stay in business; the partnership amicably dissolves as Meredith goes to North Carolina, and Franklin takes from each friend half the needed sum, continuing his business in his own name. In 1730 he marries Deborah Read, and after this he draws up proposals for a "Subscription Library"—the first public library. At this point Part One breaks off, with a memo noting that "The Affairs of the Revolution occasion'd the Interruption" in Franklin's writing.。

Part two

The second part begins with two letters Franklin received in the early 1780s while in Paris, encouraging him to continue the Autobiography, of which both correspondents have read Part One. (Although Franklin does not say so, there had been a breach with his son William after the writing of Part One, since the father had sided with the Revolutionaries and the son had remained loyal to the British Crown.)。

At Passy, a suburb of Paris, Franklin begins Part Two in 1784, giving a more detailed account of his public library plan. He then discusses his "bold and arduous Project of arriving at moral Perfection," listing thirteen virtues he wishes to perfect in himself. He creates a book with columns for each day of the week, in which he marks with black spots his offenses against each virtue. Of these virtues, he notices that Order is the hardest for him to keep. He eventually realizes that perfection is not to be attained, but feels himself better and happier because of his attempt.。

Part three

Begun in August 1788 when Franklin had returned to Philadelphia, the author says he will not be able to utilize his papers as much as he had expected, since many were lost in the recent Revolutionary War. He has, however, found and quotes a couple of his writings from the 1730's that survived. One is the "Substance of an intended Creed" consisting of what he then considered as the "Essentials" of all religions. He had intended this as a basis for a projected sect but, Franklin says, did not pursue the project.。

In 1732, Franklin first publishes his Poor Richard's Almanac, which becomes very successful. He also continues his profitable newspaper. In 1734, a preacher named Rev. Samuel Hemphill arrives from County Tyrone Ireland; Franklin supports and writes pamphlets on behalf of him. However, someone finds that Hemphill has been plagiarizing portions of his sermons from others, although Franklin rationalizes this by saying he would rather hear good sermons taken from others than poor sermons of the man's own composition.。

Franklin studies languages, reconciles with his brother James, and loses a four-year-old son to smallpox. Franklin's club, the Junto, grows and breaks off into subordinate clubs. Franklin becomes Clerk of the General Assembly in 1736, and the following year becomes Comptroller to the Postmaster General, which makes it easier to get reports and fulfill subscriptions for his newspaper. He proposes improvements in the city watch and fire prevention.。

The famed preacher George Whitefield arrives in 1739, and despite significant differences in their religious beliefs, Franklin assists Whitfield by printing his sermons and journals and by lodging him in his house. As Franklin continues to succeed, he provides the capital for several of his workers to start printing houses of their own in other colonies. He makes further proposals for the public good, including some for the defense of Pennsylvania, in which he has to contend with the pacifist position of the Quakers.。

In 1740 he invents the Franklin stove, refusing a patent on the device because it was for "the good of the people." He proposes an academy, which after raising money by subscription opens and expands enough that a new building for it has to be constructed. Franklin obtains other governmental positions (city councilman, alderman, burgess, justice of the peace) and helps negotiate a treaty with the Indians. After helping Dr. Thomas Bond establish a hospital, he helps pave the streets of Philadelphia and draws up a proposal for Dr. Fothergill about doing so in London. In 1753 Franklin becomes Deputy Postmaster General.。

The next year, as war with the French is expected, representatives of the several colonies, including Franklin, meet with the Indians to discuss defense; Franklin at this time draws up a proposal for the union of the colonies, but it is not adopted. General Braddock arrives with two regiments, and Franklin helps him secure wagons and horses, but the general refuses to take Ben's warning about danger from hostile Indians during Braddock's planned march to Frontenac (now Kingston, Ontario). When they are subsequently attacked, the general is mortally wounded, and his forces abandon their supplies and flee.。

As a militia is formed due to passage of a bill Franklin drafted, the governor asks him to take command of the northwestern frontier. With his son as aide de camp, Franklin heads for Gnadenhut, raising men for the militia and building forts. Returning to Philadelphia, he is chosen colonel of the regiment; his officers honor him by personally escorting him out of town. This gives great offense to the proprietor of the colony (Thomas Penn, son of William Penn) when someone writes an account of this in a letter to him, and the proprietor complains to the government in England about Franklin.。

Now the Autobiography discusses "the Rise and Progress of [Franklin's] Philosophical Reputation." He starts experiments with electricity and writes letters about them that are published in England as a book. Franklin's description of his experiments is translated into French, and the Abbé Nollet, who is offended because this calls into question his own theory of electricity, publishes his own book of letters attacking Franklin. Declining to respond on the grounds that anyone could duplicate and thus verify his experiments, Franklin sees another French author refute Nollet, and as Franklin's book is translated into other languages, its views are gradually accepted and Nollet's are discarded. Franklin is also voted an honorary member of the Royal Society.。

A new governor arrives, but disputes between the assembly and the governor continue. (Since the colonial governors are bound to fulfill the instructions given by the colony's proprietor, there is a continuing struggle for power between the sides of the legislature and of the governor and the proprietor.) The assembly is on the verge of sending Franklin to England to petition the King against the governor and proprietor, but Lord Loudoun arrives on the English government's behalf to mediate the differences. Franklin still goes to England accompanied by his son, after stopping at New York and making an unsuccessful attempt to be recompensed by Loudoun for his outlay of funds during his militia service. They arrive on July 27, 1757.。

Part four

Written sometime between November 1789 and Franklin's death on April 17, 1790, this section is very brief. After Franklin and his son arrive in London, the former is counselled by Dr. Fothergill on the best way to advocate his cause on behalf of the colonies. Franklin visits Lord Granville, president of the King's Privy Council, who asserts that the king is the legislator of the colonies. Franklin then meets the proprietaries (the switch to the plural is Franklin's, so apparently others besides Thomas Penn are involved). But the respective sides are far from any kind of agreement. The proprietaries ask Franklin to write a summary of the colonists' complaints; when he does so, their solicitor for reasons of personal enmity delays a response. Over a year later, the proprietaries finally respond to the assembly regarding the summary with a "flimsy Justification of their Conduct." The assembly during this delay has prevailed on the governor to pass a taxation act, and Franklin defends the act in English court so that it can receive royal assent. While the assembly thanks Franklin, the proprietaries, enraged at the governor, turn him out and threaten legal action against him; in the last sentence, Franklin tells us the governor "despis'd the Threats, and they were never put in Execution."。

What Franklin does not record。

The final sentence of Part One of the Autobiography (which lacks a period in the original manuscript) takes us only up to 1757. Thus, many of the most significant portions of Franklin's life—especially his contributions to the Revolutionary War effort—are not dealt with by the author. We know that Franklin intended to cover more ground because there is an outline of the Autobiography written by him and copied by Henry ends with a reference to the Treaty of Paris, which Franklin helped negotiate, so the obvious inference is that Franklin's death prevented his proceeding further with the Autobiography.。

Publication history。

Title page of the original edition of the autobiography in French.The Autobiography remained unpublished during Franklin's lifetime. In 1791, the first edition appeared, in French rather than English, as Mémoires de la vie privée de Benjamin Franklin, published in Paris. This translation of Part One only was based on a flawed transcript made of Franklin's manuscript before he had revised it. This French translation was then retranslated into English in two London publications of 1793, and one of the London editions served as a basis for a retranslation into French in 1798 in an edition which also included a fragment of Part Two.。

The first three parts of the Autobiography were first published together (in English) by Franklin's grandson, William Temple Franklin, in London in 1818, in Volume 1 of Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin. W.T. Franklin did not include Part Four because he had previously traded away the original holograph of the Autobiography for a copy that contained only the first three parts. Furthermore, he felt free to make unauthoritative stylistic revisions to his grandfather's autobiography, and on occasion followed the translated and retranslated versions mentioned above rather than Ben Franklin's original text.。

W.T. Franklin's text was the standard version of the Autobiography for half a century, until John Bigelow purchased the original manuscript in France and in 1868 published the most reliable text that had yet appeared, including the first English publication of Part Four. In the 20th century, important editions by Max Ferrand and the staff of the Huntington Library in San Marino, California (Benjamin Franklin's Memoirs: Parallel Text Edition, 1949) and by Leonard W. Labaree (1964, as part of the Yale University Press edition of The Papers of Benjamin Franklin) improved on Bigelow's accuracy. In 1981, J.A. Leo Lemay and P.M. Zall produced The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin: A Genetic Text, attempting to show all revisions and cancellations in the holograph manuscript. This, the most accurate edition of all so far published, served as a basis for Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography: A Norton Critical Edition and for the text of this autobiography printed in the Library of America's edition of Franklin's Writings.。

Reactions to the work。

Franklin's Autobiography has received widespread praise, both for its historical value as a record of an important early American and for its literary style. It is often considered the first American book to be taken seriously by Europeans as literature. William Dean Howells in 1905 asserted that "Franklin's is one of the greatest autobiographies in literature, and towers over other autobiographies as Franklin towered over other men." However, Mark Twain's essay "The Late Benjamin Franklin" (1870) provides a less exalted reaction, albeit somewhat tongue-in-cheek (for example, claiming that his example had "brought affliction to millions of boys since, whose fathers had read Franklin's pernicious biography"). D.H. Lawrence wrote a notable invective against "Middle-sized, sturdy, snuff-coloured Doctor Franklin" in 1924, finding considerable fault with Franklin's attempt at crafting precepts of virtue and at perfecting himself.。

Nevertheless, responses to The Autobiography have generally been more positive than Twain's or Lawrence's, with most readers recognizing it as a classic of literature and relating to the narrative voice of the author. In this work, Franklin's persona comes alive and presents a man whose greatness does not keep him from being down-to-earth and approachable, who faces up to mistakes and blunders ("Errata") he has committed in life, and who presents personal success as something within the reach of anyone willing to work hard enough for it.。

Sources

J.A. Leo Lemay & P.M. Zall, eds., Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography: A Norton Critical Edition (NY: Norton, 1986). ISBN 0-393-95294-0. (Used for most information in article, including quotes from Autobiography text, history of publication, and critical opinions. 。

Benjamin Franklin: Writings, ed. J.A. Leo Lemay (NY: Library of America, 1987). ISBN 0-940450-29-1. (Notes on p. 1559 are source for dating of Part Four.) 。

External links

Description

Spark Notes

Text of the Autobiography 。

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer) 。

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帮忙翻译一下

First Book: The History。

Chapter 1

The Italians

At the revival of civilisation in Europe, no county was in so。

favourable a position as Italy in respect to commerce and industry.。

Barbarism had not been able entirely to eradicate the culture and。

civilisation of ancient Rome. A genial climate and a fertile soil,。

notwithstanding an unskilful system of cultivation, yielded。

abundant nourishment for a numerous population. The most necessary。

arts and industries remained as little destroyed as the municipal。

institutions of ancient Rome. Prosperous coast fisheries served。

everywhere as nurseries for seamen, and navigation along Italy's。

extensive sea-coasts abundantly compensated her lack of internal。

means of transport. Her proximity to Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt,。

and her maritime intercourse with them, secured for Italy special。

advantages in the trade with the East which had previously, though。

not extensively, been carried on through Russia with the countries。

of the North. By means of this commercial intercourse Italy。

necessarily acquired those branches of knowledge and those arts and。

manufactures which Greece had preserved from the civilisation of。

ancient times.

From the period of the emancipation of the Italian cities by。

Otho the Great, they gave evidence of what history was testified。

alike in earlier and later times, namely, that freedom and industry。

are inseparable companions, even although not unfrequently the one。

has come into existence before the other. If commerce and industry。

are flourishing anywhere, one may be certain that there freedom is。

nigh at hand: if anywhere Freedom was unfolded her banner, it is as。

certain that sooner or later industry will there establish herself;。

for nothing is more natural than that when man has acquired。

material or mental wealth he should strive to obtain guarantees for。

the transmission of his acquisitions to his successors, or that。

when he has acquired freedom, he should devote all his energies to。

improve his physical and intellectual condition.。

For the first time since the downfall of the free states of。

antiquity was the spectacle again presented to the world by the。

cities of Italy of free and rich communities. Cities and。

territories reciprocally rose to a state of prosperity and received。

a powerful impulse in that direction from the Crusades.。

As matters actually stood, however, Venice was not merely left。

to her own resources, she found herself crippled by the external。

attacks of her sister states and of the neighbonring European。

powers.

It could not have proved a difficult task to a well-organised。

league of Italian military powers to defend the independence of。

Italy against the aggression of the great monarchies. The attempt。

to form such a league was actually made in 1526, but then not until。

the moment of actual danger and only for temporary defence. The。

lukewarmness and treachery of the leaders and members of this。

league were the cause of the subsequent subjugation of Milan and。

the fall of the Tuscan Republic. From that period must be dated the。

downfall of the industry and commerce of Italy.(4*)。

In her earlier as well as in her later history Venice aimed at。

being a nation for herself alone. So long as she had to deal only。

with petty Italian powers or with decrepid Greece, she had no。

difficulty in maintaining a supremacy in manufactures and commerce。

through the countries bordering on the Mediterranean and Black。

Seas. As soon, however, as united and vigorous nations appeared on。

the political stage, it became manifest at once that Venice was。

merely a city and her aristocracy only a municipal one. It is true。

that she had conquered several islands and even extensive。

provinces, but she ruled over them only as conquered territory, and。

hence (according to the testimony of all historians) each conquest。

increased her weakness instead of her power。

At the same period the spirit within the Republic by which she。

had grown great gradually died away. The power and prosperity of。

Venice -- the work of a patriotic and heroic aristocracy which had。

sprung from an energetic and liberty-loving democracy-maintained。

itself and increased so long as the freedom of democratic energy。

lent it support, and that energy was guided by the patriotism, the。

wisdom, and the heroic spirit of the aristocracy. But in proportion。

as the aristocracy became a despotic oligarchy, destructive of the。

freedom and energies of the people, the roots of power and。

prosperity died away, notwithstanding that their branches and。

leading stem appeared still to flourish for some time longer.'(5*)。

A nation which has fallen into slavery,' says Montesquieu,(6*)。

'strives rather to retain what it possesses than to acquire more;。

a free nation, on the contrary, strives rather to acquire than to。

retain.' To this very true observation he might have added -- and。

because anyone strives only to retain without acquiring he must。

come to grief, for every nation which makes no forward progress。

sinks lower and lower, and must ultimately fall. Far from striving。

to extend their commerce and to make new discoveries, the Venetians。

never even conceived the idea of deriving benefit from the。

discoveries made by other nations. That they could be excluded from。

the trade with the East Indies by the discovery of the new。

commercial route thither, never occurred to them until they。

actually experienced it. What all the rest of the world perceived。

they would not believe; and when they began to find out the。

injurious results of the altered state of things, they strove to。

maintain the old commercial route instead of seeking to participate。

in the benefits of the new one; they endeavoured to maintain by。

petty intrigues what could only be won by making wise use of the。

altered circumstances by the spirit of enterprise and by hardihood.。

And when they at length had lost what they had possessed, and the。

wealth of the East and West indies was pouted into Cadiz and Lisbon。

instead of into their own ports, like simpletons or spendthrifts。

they turned their attention to alchemy.(7*)。

In the times when the Republic grew and flourished, to be。

inscribed in the Golden Book was regarded as a reward for。

distinguished exertions in commerce, in industry, or in the civil。

or military service of the State. On that condition this honour was。

open to foreigners; for example, to the most distinguished of the。

silk manufacturers who had immigrated from Florence.(8*) But that。

book was closed when men began to regard places of honour and State。

salaries as the family inheritance of the patrician class. At a。

later period, when men recognised the necessity of giving new life。

to the impoverished and enfeebled aristocracy, the book was。

reopened. But the chief title to inscription in it was no longer,。

as in former times, to have rendered services to the State, but the。

possession of wealth and noble birth. At length the honour of being。

inscribed in the Golden Book was so little esteemed, that it。

remained open for a century with scarcely any additional names.。

If we inquire of History what were the causes of the downfall。

of this Republic and of its commerce, she replies that they。

principally consisted in the folly, neglect, and cowardice of a。

worn-out aristocracy, and in the apathy of a people who had sunk。

into slavery. The commerce and manufactures of Venice must have。

declined, even if the new route round the Cape of Good Hope had。

never been discovered.。

The cause of it, as of the fall of all the other Italian。

republics, is to be found in the absence of national unity, in the。

domination of foreign powers, in priestly rule at home, and in the。

rise of other greater, more powerful, and more united nationalities。

in Europe.

If we carefully consider the commercial policy of Venice, we。

see at a glance that that of modern commercial and manufacturing。

nations is but a copy of that of Venice, only on an enlarged (i.e.。

a national) scale. By navigation laws and customs duties in each。

case native vessels and native manufactures were protected against。

those of foreigners, and the maxim thus early held good that it was。

sound policy to import raw materials from other states and to。

export to them manufactured goods.(9*)。

It has been recently asserted in defence of the principle of。

absolute and unconditional free trade, that her protective policy。

was the cause of the downfall of Venice. That assertion comprises。

a little truth with a great deal of error if we investigate the。

history of Venice with an unprejudiced eye, we find that in her。

case, as in that of the great kingdoms at a later period, freedom。

of international trade as well as restrictions on it have been。

beneficial or prejudicial to the power and prosperity of the State。

at different epochs. Unrestricted freedom of trade was beneficial。

to the Republic in the first years of her existence; for how。

otherwise could she have raised herself from a mere fishing village。

to a commercial power? But a protective policy was also beneficial。

to her when she had arrived at a certain stage of power and wealth,。

for by means of it she attained to manufacturing and commercial。

supremacy. Protection first became injurious to her when her。

manufacturing and commercial power had reached that supremacy,。

because by it all competition with other nations became absolutely。

excluded, and thus indolence was encouraged. Therefore, not the。

introduction of a protective policy, but perseverance in。

maintaining it after the reasons for its introduction had passed。

away, was really injurious to Venice.。

Hence the argument to which we have adverted has this great。

fault, that it takes no account of the rise of great nations under。

hereditary monarchy. Venice, although mistress of some provinces。

and islands, yet being all the time merely one Italian city, stood。

in competition, at the period of her rise to a manufacturing and。

commercial power, merely with other Italian cities; and her。

prohibitory commercial policy could benefit her so long only as。

whole nations with united power did not enter into competition with。

her. But as soon as that took place, she could only have maintained。

her supremacy by placing herself at the head of a united Italy and。

by embracing in her commercial system the whole Italian nation. No。

commercial policy was ever clever enough to maintain continuously。

the commercial supremacy of a single city over united nations.。

From the example of Venice (so far as it may be adduced against。

a protective commercial policy at the present time) neither more。

nor less can be inferred than this -- that a single city or a small。

state cannot establish and maintain such a policy successfully in。

competition with great states and kingdoms; also that any power。

which by means of a protective policy has attained a position of。

manufacturing and commercial supremacy, can (after she has attained。

it) revert with advantage to the policy of free trade.。

In the argument before adverted to, as in every other when。

international freedom of trade is the subject of discussion, we。

meet with a misconception which has been the parent of much error,。

occasioned by the misuse of the term 'freedom.' Freedom of trade is。

spoken of in the same terms as religious freedom and municipal。

freedom. Hence the friends and advocates of freedom feel themselves。

especially bound to defend freedom in all its forms. And thus the。

term 'free trade' has become popular without drawing the necessary。

distinction between freedom of internal trade within the State and。

freedom of trade between separate nations, notwithstanding that。

these two in their nature and operation are as distinct as the。

heaven is from the earth. For while restrictions on the internal。

trade of a state are compatible in only very few cases with the。

liberty of individual citizens, in the case of international trade。

the highest degree of individual liberty may consist with a high。

degree of protective policy. Indeed, it is even possible that the。

greatest freedom of international trade may result in national。

servitude, as we hope hereafter to show from the case of Poland. In。

respect to this Montesquieu says truly, 'Commerce is never。

subjected to greater restrictions than in free nations, and never。

subjected to less ones than in those under despotic。

government.'(10*)。

NOTES:

1. De l'Ecluse, Florence et ses Vicissitudes, pp. 23, 26, 32, 163,。

213.

2. Pechio, Histoire de l'Economie Politique en Italie.。

3. Amalfi contained at the period of her prosperity 50,000。

inhabitants. Flavio Guio, the inventor of the mariner's compass,。

was a citizen of Amalfi. It was the sack of Amalfi by the Pisans。

(1135 or 1137) that that ancient book was discovered which later on。

became so injurious to the freedom and energies of Germany -- the。

Pandects.

4. Hence Charles V was the destroyer of commerce and industry in。

Italy, as he was also in the Netherlands and in Spain. He was the。

introducer of nobility by patent, and of the idea that it was。

disgraceful for the nobility to carry on commerce or manufactures。

-- an idea which had the most destructive influence on the national。

industry. Before his time the contrary idea prevailed; the Medici。

continued to be engaged in commerce long after they had become。

sovereign rulers.。

5. "Quand les nobles, au lien de verser leur sang pour la patrie,。

au lieu d'illustrer l'etat par des victoires et de l'agrandir par。

des conquetes, n'eurent plus qu'a jouir des honneurs et a se。

partager des impots on dut se demander pourquoi il y avait huit ou。

neuf cents habitants de Venice qui se disaient proprietaries de。

toute la Republique." (Daru, Histoire de Venise, vol. iv. ch.。

xviii.)

6. Esprit des Lois, p. 192.。

7. A mere charlatan, Marco Brasadino, who professed to have the art。

of making gold, was welcomed by the Venetian aristocracy as a。

saviour. (Daru, Histoire de Venise, vol. iii. ch. xix.)。

8. Venice, as Holland and England subsequently did, made use of。

every opportunity of attracting to herself manufacturing industry。

and capital from foreign states. Also a considerable number of silk。

manufacturers emigrated to Venice from Luces, where already in the。

thirteenth century the manufacturer of velvets and brocades was。

very flourishing, in consequence of the oppression of the Lucchese。

tyrant Castruccio Castracani. (Sandu, Histoire de Venise, vol. i.。

pp. 247-256.)

9. Sismondi, Histoire des Republiques Italiennes, Pt. I, p. 285.。

10. Esprit des Lois, livre xx. ch. xii.。

帮忙翻译这几段话翻译成英语 不要机器翻译的 谢谢各位大神了

翻译成什么都没说。

英语：

Expo 2010 footsteps getting closer and closer away from us, this is a million people watched the World event! Oriental Pearl opened their arms to welcome guests from afar. River in the singing of the waves, a plane of the bridge across the river just like the strings, played a迎宾曲, Mercedes-Benz vehicles on the bridge just like a beat note, written with joy. Shanghai World Expo will be held at a time when, to meet the country's nearly 200 guests. As a small owner of Shanghai, we are prepared to contribute to the Expo. There will be tens of thousands of foreign volunteers assembled in Shanghai, as a secondary school student in Shanghai, I am proud, I wish I could be a little Expo volunteers from all over the world for friends introduced in Shanghai, China. 。

Expo's theme is "Let the city agency better." At that time, Shanghai is the green and luxuriant flowers and trees, people will show a beautiful Shangri-La. I would like to become a defender of the city in small green-maintaining, for a green city, so that the road become more clean, let the city more beautiful. 。

If I am a Volunteer Expo, I use English with the guests from abroad to chat. Language is the bridge of friendship. I am trying to learn English, to English and foreign exchange is a matter I am happy. I want to make foreign guests from China were the feelings of friendship, witness the demeanor of the Chinese middle school students. 。

If I am a Volunteer Expo. I will introduce to the foreign friends of China's tremendous changes, from rural to urban areas; from the "Shenzhou VI" to the moon; from the Shanghai World Expo to China's future. Visit the Shanghai Museum of History, brief them on the land of China's historical figures, with a vivid image of historical figures to describe the heroic figures of China, with bright paintings show the Chinese history and great glory. 。

If I am a Volunteer Expo, I will smile for the guests about Shanghai's my favorite. Shanghai night like a bright pearl, lantern of the Bund des Nations decorate buildings have Ambilight. I shall explain to them the Oriental Pearl Tower, Jinmao Tower and the Global Center, to enable them to understand this magnificent building in the end there is no secret and take them to the Shanghai Grand Theater to listen to wonderful music. 。

If I am a Volunteer Expo. I will work hard to teach foreigners to learn Chinese, Chinese is now the language is also one of the most popular overseas, I will teach them to write calligraphy, Chinese painting art; I will tell foreign friends of China's cultural tradition, dragon boat races, visiting temple fairs, lantern guess with foreign friends and Temple Yuyuan mortar, eating snacks Temple to see clay, flour, and shadow. Let further the feelings of the Chinese foreign friends. 。

Shanghai World Expo and the city have a relationship everyone, everyone of us should be masters to participate in the Expo, and practical action in their own interpretation of "City, Better Life" theme. I would like to strive for this goal to learn, learning history, English and local cultural practices, and future services for the Shanghai World Expo, the world saw a warm, civilized, beautiful, advanced in China.。

荷兰语：

Expo 2010 voetstappen dichter en dichter uit de buurt van ons, dit is een miljoen mensen zagen hoe de wereld evenement! Oriental Pearl openden hun armen verwelkomen de gasten van verre. Rivier in het zingen van de golven, een vliegtuig van de brug over de rivier, net als de strijkers, speelde een迎宾曲, Mercedes-Benz voertuigen op de brug net als een beat notitie geschreven met vreugde. Shanghai World Expo zal plaatsvinden op een moment dat, om tegemoet te komen aan het land van de bijna 200 gasten. Als een klein eigenaar van Shanghai, zijn wij bereid om bij te dragen aan de Expo. Er zullen tienduizenden buitenlandse vrijwilligers geassembleerd in Sjanghai, zoals een middelbare school student in Shanghai, ik ben er trots op, ik wou dat ik kon een beetje Expo vrijwilligers van over de hele wereld voor vrienden in Shanghai, China. 。

Expo Het thema is "Laat de stad agentschap beter." Op dat moment, Shanghai is de groene en weelderige bloemen en bomen, zullen de mensen een prachtige Shangri-La. Ik wil graag een verdediger van de stad in kleine groen-onderhoud, voor een groene stad, zodat de weg meer schoon, laat de stad mooier. 。

Als ik ben een vrijwilliger Expo, ik gebruik het Engels met de gasten uit het buitenland te kunnen chatten. Taal is de brug van vriendschap. Ik probeer te leren Engels, het Engels en deviezen is een zaak ben ik gelukkig. Ik wil buitenlandse gasten uit China waren de gevoelens van vriendschap, getuige het gedrag van de Chinese middelbare scholieren. 。

Als ik ben een vrijwilliger Expo. Ik zal aan de buitenlandse vrienden van China's enorme veranderingen, van het platteland naar de stedelijke gebieden; van de "Shenzhou VI" naar de maan, van de Shanghai World Expo aan China's toekomst. Bezoek het Shanghai Museum van de Geschiedenis, kort op de grond van China's historische cijfers, met een levendig beeld van de historische cijfers voor de beschrijving van het heroïsche figuren van China, met heldere schilderijen tonen de Chinese geschiedenis en grote heerlijkheid. 。

Als ik ben een vrijwilliger Expo, zal ik glimlach voor de gasten over Shanghai is mijn favoriet. Shanghai nacht als een heldere parel, lantaarn van de Bund des Nations decoreren gebouwen hebben Ambilight. Ik zal uitleggen aan hen de Oriental Pearl Tower, Jinmao Toren en het Global Center, om hen in staat te begrijpen dit prachtige gebouw aan het einde daar is geen geheim en neemt ze het Shanghai Grand Theater te luisteren naar prachtige muziek. 。

Als ik ben een vrijwilliger Expo. Ik zal hard werken om te onderwijzen buitenlanders om te leren Chinees, Chinees is nu de taal is ook een van de meest populaire overzeese, ik zal leren ze om te schrijven kalligrafie, Chinese schilderkunst; Ik zal vertellen buitenlandse vrienden van China's culturele traditie, dragon boat races, tempel bezoekt beurzen, lantaarn raden met buitenlandse vrienden en Temple Yuyuan mortel, eten snacks Tempel te zien klei, bloem, en schaduw. Laat verder de gevoelens van de Chinese buitenlandse vrienden. 。

Shanghai World Expo en de stad hebben een relatie iedereen, iedereen van ons moet zijn meesters om deel te nemen aan de Expo, en concrete acties in hun eigen interpretatie van "Stad, Beter Leven" thema. Ik zou graag willen inzetten voor dit doel om te leren, het leren van de geschiedenis, Engels en de lokale culturele praktijken en toekomstige diensten voor de Shanghai World Expo, de wereld zag een warm, beschaafd, prachtige, geavanceerde in China.。

意大利语：

Expo 2010 passi avvicinarsi e di una più stretta di distanza da noi, si tratta di un milione di persone guardato l'evento mondiale! Oriental Pearl aperto le braccia per accogliere ospiti provenienti da lontano. Nel fiume, il canto delle onde, un piano del ponte sul fiume come le stringhe, ha svolto un迎宾曲, Mercedes-Benz veicoli sul ponte come un battito nota, scritta con gioia. Shanghai World Expo che si terrà in un momento in cui, per rispondere del paese di circa 200 ospiti. Come un piccolo proprietario di Shanghai, siamo pronti a contribuire alla Expo. Ci saranno decine di migliaia di volontari stranieri riuniti a Shanghai, come uno studente di scuola secondaria a Shanghai, sono orgoglioso, vorrei poter essere un po 'Expo volontari provenienti da tutto il mondo per gli amici introdotto a Shanghai, Cina. 。

Expo tema è "La città agenzia meglio". A quel tempo, Shanghai è il verde lussureggiante e fiori e alberi, la gente si mostra una bella Shangri-La. Vorrei diventare un difensore della città, nel verde, il mantenimento di piccole dimensioni, per una città verde, in modo che la strada diventata più pulita, per non parlare della città più bella. 。

假如我是一名世博志愿者，我要用英语同来自异国他乡的外宾进行交谈。 La lingua è il ponte di amicizia. Sto cercando di imparare l'inglese, l'inglese e in valuta estera è una questione Sono felice. Vorrei fare gli ospiti stranieri provenienti dalla Cina sono stati i sentimenti di amicizia, di testimoniare il comportamento della scuola media gli studenti cinesi. 。

Se sono un Volontario Expo. I introdurrà alla stranieri amici della Cina enormi cambiamenti, dalle aree rurali a quelle urbane, dalla "Shenzhou VI" per la luna, dalla Shanghai World Expo per il futuro della Cina. Visita il Museo di Storia di Shanghai, breve sul terreno della Cina storici, con una viva immagine di figure storiche di descrivere le figure eroiche della Cina, con brillanti dipinti mostrano la storia cinese e grande gloria. 。

Se sono un Volontario Expo, mi sorriso per gli ospiti su Shanghai è il mio preferito. Shanghai notte luminosa come una perla, la lanterna del Bund des Nations decorare edifici sono Ambilight. I spiegare loro l'Oriental Pearl Tower, Jinmao Tower e il Global Center, per permettere loro di comprendere questo magnifico edificio, alla fine, non vi è alcun segreto e al Gran Teatro di Shanghai per ascoltare la musica meravigliosa. 。

Se sono un Volontario Expo. Io lavoro duro per insegnare stranieri imparare il cinese, il cinese è la lingua è anche uno dei piu 'conosciuti all'estero, mi insegnerà loro a scrivere la calligrafia, pittura cinese; dirò stranieri amici della tradizione culturale della Cina, drago regate, visitando fiere tempio, fanale indovinare con gli amici e Tempio Yuyuan mortaio, mangiare snack Tempio vedere argilla, farina, e l'ombra. Cerchiamo inoltre i sentimenti dei cinesi amici stranieri. 。

Shanghai World Expo e la città hanno un rapporto di tutti, ognuno di noi dovrebbe essere maestri di partecipare alla Expo, e azioni concrete nella propria interpretazione del concetto di "City, Better Life" tema. Vorrei a lottare per questo obiettivo di imparare, l'apprendimento della storia, inglese e pratiche culturali locali, e il futuro dei servizi di Shanghai World Expo, il mondo ha visto un ambiente caldo, civile, bello, avanzata in Cina.。

不知你要哪一种。

我想应该够了。

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