unwary-100

珠穆朗玛峰的英文资料

Mount Everest, mountain peak in the Himalayas of southern Asia, considered the highest mountain in the world. Mount Everest is situated at the edge of the Tibetan Plateau (Qing Zang Gaoyuan), on the border of Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. 。

Mount Everest was known as Peak XV until 1856, when it was named for Sir George Everest, the surveyor general of India from 1830 to 1843. The naming coincided with an official announcement of the mountain's height, taken as the average of six separate measurements made by the Great Trigonometrical Survey in 1850. Most Nepali people refer to the mountain as Sagarmatha, meaning “Forehead in the Sky.” Speakers of Tibetan languages, including the Sherpa people of northern Nepal, refer to the mountain as Chomolungma, Tibetan for “Goddess Mother of the World.”

The height of Mount Everest has been determined to be 8,850 m (29,035 ft). The mountain’s actual height, and the claim that Everest is the highest mountain in the world, have long been disputed. But scientific surveys completed in the early 1990s continued to support evidence that Everest is the highest mountain in the world. In fact, the mountain is rising a few millimeters each year due to geological forces. Global Positioning System (GPS) has been installed on Mount Everest for the purpose of detecting slight rates of geological uplift. 。

Mount Everest, like the rest of the Himalayas, rose from the floor of the ancient Tethys Sea. The range was created when the Eurasian continental plate collided with the Indian subcontinental plate about 30 to 50 million years ago. Eventually the marine limestone was forced upward to become the characteristic yellow band on the top of Mount Everest. Beneath the shallow marine rock lies the highly metamorphosed black gneiss (foliated, or layered, rock) of Precambrian time, a remnant of the original continental plates that collided and forced up the Himalayas. 。

Mount Everest is covered with huge glaciers that descend from the main peak and its nearby satellite peaks. The mountain itself is a pyramid-shaped horn, sculpted by the erosive power of the glacial ice into three massive faces and three major ridges, which soar to the summit from the north, south, and west and separate the glaciers. From the south side of the mountain, in a clockwise direction, the main glaciers are the Khumbu glacier, which flows northeast before turning southwest; the West Rongbuk glacier in the northwest; the Rongbuk glacier in the north; the East Rongbuk glacier in the northeast; and the Kangshung glacier in the east. 。

The climate of Mount Everest is naturally extreme. In January, the coldest month, the summit temperature averages -36° C (-33° F) and can drop as low as -60° C (-76° F). In July, the warmest month, the average summit temperature is -19° C (-2° F). At no time of the year does the temperature on the summit rise above freezing. In winter and spring the prevailing westerly wind blows against the peak and around the summit. Moisture-laden air rises from the south slopes of the Himalayas and condenses into a white, pennant-shaped cloud pointing east; this “flag cloud” sometimes enables climbers to predict storms. When the wind reaches 80 km/h (50 mph), the flag cloud is at a right angle to the peak. When the wind is weaker, the cloud tilts up; when it is stronger, the flag tilts down. 。

From June through September the mountain is in the grip of the Indian monsoon, during which wind and precipitation blow in from the Indian Ocean. Masses of clouds and violent snowstorms are common during this time. From November to February, in the dead of winter, the global southwest-flowing jet stream moves in from the north, beating the summit with winds of hurricane force that may reach more than 285 km/h (177 mph). Even during the pre- and post-monsoon climbing seasons, strong winds may arise suddenly. When such storms develop, sand and small stones carried aloft, as well as beating snow and ice, pose problems for climbers. 。

Precipitation falls mostly during the monsoon season, while winter storms between December and March account for the rest. Unexpected storms, however, can drop up to 3 m (10 ft) of snow on unsuspecting climbers and mountain hikers. 。

Base Camp, which serves as a resting area and base of operations for climbers organizing their attempts for the summit, is located on the Khumbu glacier at an elevation of 5,400 m (17,600 ft); it receives an average of 450 mm (18 in) of precipitation a year. 。

Traditionally, the people who live near Mount Everest have revered the mountains of the Himalayas and imagined them as the homes of the gods. Because the peaks were considered sacred, no local people scaled them before the early 1900s. However, when foreign expeditions brought tourist dollars and Western ideas to the area, people of the Sherpa ethnic group began to serve as high-altitude porters for them. Because Nepal had been closed to foreigners since the early 1800s, all pre-World War II (1939-1945) Everest expeditions were forced to recruit Sherpa porters from Dārjiling (Darjeeling), India, then circle through Tibet and approach Everest from the north. 。

In 1913 British explorer John Noel sneaked into Tibet, which was also closed at the time, and made a preliminary survey of the mountain’s northern approaches, where the topography is less varied than on the southern side. In 1921 the British began a major exploration of the north side of the mountain, led by George Leigh Mallory. Mallory’s expedition, and another that took place soon afterward, were unable to overcome strong winds, avalanches, and other hazards to reach the summit. In 1924 a third British expedition resulted in the disappearance of Mallory and a climbing companion only 240 m (800 ft) from the summit. More attempts were made throughout the 1930s and into the 1940s. Then, with the conquest of Tibet by China in the early 1950s, the region was closed to foreigners again and the northern approaches to the mountain were sealed off. 。

In 1950, the year after Nepal opened to foreigners, W. H. Tilman and C. Houston made the first ascent from the south and became the first people to see into the Khumbu cirque (a steep basin at the head of a mountain valley). A number of attempts to reach the mountain’s summit followed in the early 1950s. In 1952 the Swiss almost succeeded in climbing the mountain from the South Col, which is a major pass between the Everest and Lhotse peaks and is now the most popular climbing route to the summit. On May 29, 1953, under the tenth British expedition flag and the leadership of John Hunt, Edmund Hillary of New Zealand and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay of Nepal successfully completed the first ascent of Mount Everest via the South Col. Several expeditions have since followed. In 1975 Junko Tabei of Japan became the first woman to summit Mount Everest. Later, in 1978, Austrians Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler established a new and rigorous standard by climbing to the summit without the use of supplemental oxygen, which, because of the thin air at Everest’s high altitude, is important for the energy, health, and thinking skills of the climbers. In 1991 Sherpas, who had carried the supplies for so many foreigners up Mount Everest, completed their own successful expedition to the summit. By the mid-1990s, 4,000 people had attempted to climb Everest—660 of them successfully reached the summit and more than 140 of them died trying. 。

The difficulties of climbing Mount Everest are legendary. Massive snow and ice avalanches are a constant threat to all expeditions. The avalanches thunder off the peaks repeatedly, sometimes burying valleys, glaciers, and climbing routes. Camps are chosen to avoid known avalanche paths, and climbers who make ascents through avalanche terrain try to cross at times when the weather is most appropriate. Hurricane-force winds are a well-known hazard on Everest, and many people have been endangered or killed when their tents collapsed or were ripped to shreds by the gales. Hypothermia, the dramatic loss of body heat, is also a major and debilitating problem in this region of high winds and low temperatures. 。

Tenzing Norgay on the Summit of Everest 。

Tenzing Norgay on the Summit of Everest 。

This photograph, taken by Edmund Hillary, shows Tenzing Norgay on the summit of Mount Everest. The two men became the first people to scale the summit of the mountain, the highest in the world, on May 29, 1953. 。

Encarta Encyclopedia 。

Archive Photos 。

Full Size

Another hazard facing Everest climbers is the famous Khumbu icefall, which is located not far above Base Camp and is caused by the rapid movement of the Khumbu glacier over the steep rock underneath. The movement breaks the ice into sérac (large, pointed masses of ice) cliffs and columns separated by huge crevasses, and causes repeated icefalls across the route between Base Camp and Camp I. Many people have died in this area. Exposed crevasses may be easy to avoid, but those buried under snow can form treacherous snow bridges through which unwary climbers can fall. 。

The standard climb of Mount Everest from the south side ascends the Khumbu glacier to Base Camp at 5,400 m (17,600 ft). Typical expeditions use four camps above Base Camp; these camps give the climbers an opportunity to rest and acclimate (adapt) to the high altitude. The route from Base Camp through the great Khumbu icefall up to Camp I at 5,900 m (19,500 ft) is difficult and dangerous; it usually takes one to three weeks to establish because supplies must be carried up the mountain in several separate trips. Once Camp II, at 6,500 m (21,300 ft), has been supplied in the same manner using both Base Camp and Camp I as bases, climbers typically break down Base Camp and make the trek from there to Camp II in one continuous effort. Once acclimatized, the climbers can make the move to Camp II in five to six hours. Camp III is then established near the cirque of the Khumbu glacier at 7,300 m (24,000 ft). The route up the cirque headwall from Camp III to the South Col and Camp IV at 7,900 m (26,000 ft) is highly strenuous and takes about four to eight hours. The South Col is a cold, windy, and desolate place of rocks, snow slabs, littered empty oxygen bottles, and other trash. 。

Deadly Day on Mount Everest 。

Deadly Day on Mount Everest 。

In May 1996 a chain of amateur climbers and professional guides wait their turn to ascend the Hillary Step, a rock face, 12-m (40-ft) tall, (center) just 30 m (100 ft) below the summit of Mount Everest. This photograph was taken by guide Scott Fischer on what became one of the deadliest days ever on Mount Everest. Fischer and several other climbers perished just hours later when a sudden, severe storm trapped several climbing parties high on the mountain. In all, 12 climbers died. Some survivors and other observers believe that the tragedy was due in part to crowded summit conditions—there were simply too many climbers, especially less-experienced climbers, trying to summit Mount Everest at the same time. 。

Encarta Encyclopedia 。

Scott Fischer/Woodfin Camp and Associates, Inc. 。

Full Size

From the South Col to the summit is a climb of only 900 vertical m (3,000 vertical ft), although its fierce exposure to adverse weather and steep drop-offs poses many challenges. The section between 8,530 m (28,000 ft) and the South Summit at 8,750 m (28,700 ft) is particularly treacherous because of the steepness and unstable snow. From the South Summit there remains another 90 vertical m (300 vertical ft) along a terrifying knife-edged ridge. The exposure is extreme, with the possibility of huge vertical drops into Tibet on the right and down the southwest face on the left. A little more than 30 vertical m (100 vertical ft) from the summit is a 12-m (40-ft) chimney across a rock cliff known as the Hillary Step; this is one of the greatest technical challenges of the climb. 。

As the popularity of climbing Everest has increased in recent years, so have safety problems. To pay the high climbing permit fee charged by the Nepalese government, many experienced climbers have recruited wealthy, amateur climbers as teammates. The combination of inexperience, crowded summit conditions (more than 30 have been known to summit the peak on the same day), and extreme weather conditions has led to a number of tragedies in which clients and competent guides alike have died attempting the climb. 。

The large number of trekkers and climbers who visit Nepal and the Everest region contribute to the local economy but also cause serious environmental impact. Such impact includes the burning of wood for fuel, pollution in the form of human waste and trash, and abandoned climbing gear. Although some climbing gear is recycled by local residents either for their own use or for resale, it is estimated that more than 50 tons of plastic, glass, and metal were dumped between 1953 and the mid-1990s in what has been called “the world’s highest junkyard.” Up on the ice, where few local people go, the norm is to throw trash into the many crevasses, where it is ground up and consumed by the action of the ice. A few bits and pieces show up on the lower part of the glacier many years later as they are churned back to the surface, although organic matter is generally consumed or scavenged by local wildlife. At the high-elevation camps, used oxygen bottles are strewn everywhere. 。

Efforts have been made to reduce the negative environmental impact on Mount Everest. The Nepalese government has been using a portion of climbing fees to clean up the area. In 1976, with aid from Sir Edmund Hillary’s Himalayan Trust and the Nepalese government, the Sagarmatha National Park was established to preserve the remaining soil and forest around Mount Everest. By the mid-1990s the park comprised 1,240 sq km (480 sq mi). Trekking and climbing groups must bring their own fuel to the park (usually butane and kerosene), and the cutting of wood is now prohibited. Because the freedoms of Sherpas have been restricted by the park rules, they have not been sympathetic to the existence of the park. Additionally, the Sagarmatha Pollution Control, funded by the World Wildlife Fund and the Himalayan Trust, was established in 1991 to help preserve Everest’s environment. Climbing activity continues to increase, however, and the environmental future of the Mount Everest area remains uncertain.。

参考资料：摘自 microsoft student 2007。

关于C加加和JAVA

Mount Everest, mountain peak in the Himalayas of southern Asia, considered the highest mountain in the world. Mount Everest is situated at the edge of the Tibetan Plateau (Qing Zang Gaoyuan), on the border of Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.。

Mount Everest was known as Peak XV until 1856, when it was named for Sir George Everest, the surveyor general of India from 1830 to 1843. The naming coincided with an official announcement of the mountain's height, taken as the average of six separate measurements made by the Great Trigonometrical Survey in 1850. Most Nepali people refer to the mountain as Sagarmatha, meaning “Forehead in the Sky.” Speakers of Tibetan languages, including the Sherpa people of northern Nepal, refer to the mountain as Chomolungma, Tibetan for “Goddess Mother of the World.”

The height of Mount Everest has been determined to be 8,850 m (29,035 ft). The mountain’s actual height, and the claim that Everest is the highest mountain in the world, have long been disputed. But scientific surveys completed in the early 1990s continued to support evidence that Everest is the highest mountain in the world. In fact, the mountain is rising a few millimeters each year due to geological forces. Global Positioning System (GPS) has been installed on Mount Everest for the purpose of detecting slight rates of geological uplift.。

Mount Everest, like the rest of the Himalayas, rose from the floor of the ancient Tethys Sea. The range was created when the Eurasian continental plate collided with the Indian subcontinental plate about 30 to 50 million years ago. Eventually the marine limestone was forced upward to become the characteristic yellow band on the top of Mount Everest. Beneath the shallow marine rock lies the highly metamorphosed black gneiss (foliated, or layered, rock) of Precambrian time, a remnant of the original continental plates that collided and forced up the Himalayas. 。

Mount Everest is covered with huge glaciers that descend from the main peak and its nearby satellite peaks. The mountain itself is a pyramid-shaped horn, sculpted by the erosive power of the glacial ice into three massive faces and three major ridges, which soar to the summit from the north, south, and west and separate the glaciers. From the south side of the mountain, in a clockwise direction, the main glaciers are the Khumbu glacier, which flows northeast before turning southwest; the West Rongbuk glacier in the northwest; the Rongbuk glacier in the north; the East Rongbuk glacier in the northeast; and the Kangshung glacier in the east. 。

The climate of Mount Everest is naturally extreme. In January, the coldest month, the summit temperature averages -36° C (-33° F) and can drop as low as -60° C (-76° F). In July, the warmest month, the average summit temperature is -19° C (-2° F). At no time of the year does the temperature on the summit rise above freezing. In winter and spring the prevailing westerly wind blows against the peak and around the summit. Moisture-laden air rises from the south slopes of the Himalayas and condenses into a white, pennant-shaped cloud pointing east; this “flag cloud” sometimes enables climbers to predict storms. When the wind reaches 80 km/h (50 mph), the flag cloud is at a right angle to the peak. When the wind is weaker, the cloud tilts up; when it is stronger, the flag tilts down. 。

From June through September the mountain is in the grip of the Indian monsoon, during which wind and precipitation blow in from the Indian Ocean. Masses of clouds and violent snowstorms are common during this time. From November to February, in the dead of winter, the global southwest-flowing jet stream moves in from the north, beating the summit with winds of hurricane force that may reach more than 285 km/h (177 mph). Even during the pre- and post-monsoon climbing seasons, strong winds may arise suddenly. When such storms develop, sand and small stones carried aloft, as well as beating snow and ice, pose problems for climbers. 。

Precipitation falls mostly during the monsoon season, while winter storms between December and March account for the rest. Unexpected storms, however, can drop up to 3 m (10 ft) of snow on unsuspecting climbers and mountain hikers.。

Base Camp, which serves as a resting area and base of operations for climbers organizing their attempts for the summit, is located on the Khumbu glacier at an elevation of 5,400 m (17,600 ft); it receives an average of 450 mm (18 in) of precipitation a year. 。

Traditionally, the people who live near Mount Everest have revered the mountains of the Himalayas and imagined them as the homes of the gods. Because the peaks were considered sacred, no local people scaled them before the early 1900s. However, when foreign expeditions brought tourist dollars and Western ideas to the area, people of the Sherpa ethnic group began to serve as high-altitude porters for them. Because Nepal had been closed to foreigners since the early 1800s, all pre-World War II (1939-1945) Everest expeditions were forced to recruit Sherpa porters from Dārjiling (Darjeeling), India, then circle through Tibet and approach Everest from the north.。

In 1913 British explorer John Noel sneaked into Tibet, which was also closed at the time, and made a preliminary survey of the mountain’s northern approaches, where the topography is less varied than on the southern side. In 1921 the British began a major exploration of the north side of the mountain, led by George Leigh Mallory. Mallory’s expedition, and another that took place soon afterward, were unable to overcome strong winds, avalanches, and other hazards to reach the summit. In 1924 a third British expedition resulted in the disappearance of Mallory and a climbing companion only 240 m (800 ft) from the summit. More attempts were made throughout the 1930s and into the 1940s. Then, with the conquest of Tibet by China in the early 1950s, the region was closed to foreigners again and the northern approaches to the mountain were sealed off.。

In 1950, the year after Nepal opened to foreigners, W. H. Tilman and C. Houston made the first ascent from the south and became the first people to see into the Khumbu cirque (a steep basin at the head of a mountain valley). A number of attempts to reach the mountain’s summit followed in the early 1950s. In 1952 the Swiss almost succeeded in climbing the mountain from the South Col, which is a major pass between the Everest and Lhotse peaks and is now the most popular climbing route to the summit. On May 29, 1953, under the tenth British expedition flag and the leadership of John Hunt, Edmund Hillary of New Zealand and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay of Nepal successfully completed the first ascent of Mount Everest via the South Col. Several expeditions have since followed. In 1975 Junko Tabei of Japan became the first woman to summit Mount Everest. Later, in 1978, Austrians Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler established a new and rigorous standard by climbing to the summit without the use of supplemental oxygen, which, because of the thin air at Everest’s high altitude, is important for the energy, health, and thinking skills of the climbers. In 1991 Sherpas, who had carried the supplies for so many foreigners up Mount Everest, completed their own successful expedition to the summit. By the mid-1990s, 4,000 people had attempted to climb Everest—660 of them successfully reached the summit and more than 140 of them died trying. 。

The difficulties of climbing Mount Everest are legendary. Massive snow and ice avalanches are a constant threat to all expeditions. The avalanches thunder off the peaks repeatedly, sometimes burying valleys, glaciers, and climbing routes. Camps are chosen to avoid known avalanche paths, and climbers who make ascents through avalanche terrain try to cross at times when the weather is most appropriate. Hurricane-force winds are a well-known hazard on Everest, and many people have been endangered or killed when their tents collapsed or were ripped to shreds by the gales. Hypothermia, the dramatic loss of body heat, is also a major and debilitating problem in this region of high winds and low temperatures. 。

Tenzing Norgay on the Summit of Everest 。

Tenzing Norgay on the Summit of Everest 。

This photograph, taken by Edmund Hillary, shows Tenzing Norgay on the summit of Mount Everest. The two men became the first people to scale the summit of the mountain, the highest in the world, on May 29, 1953. 。

Encarta Encyclopedia 。

Archive Photos 。

Full Size

Another hazard facing Everest climbers is the famous Khumbu icefall, which is located not far above Base Camp and is caused by the rapid movement of the Khumbu glacier over the steep rock underneath. The movement breaks the ice into sérac (large, pointed masses of ice) cliffs and columns separated by huge crevasses, and causes repeated icefalls across the route between Base Camp and Camp I. Many people have died in this area. Exposed crevasses may be easy to avoid, but those buried under snow can form treacherous snow bridges through which unwary climbers can fall. 。

The standard climb of Mount Everest from the south side ascends the Khumbu glacier to Base Camp at 5,400 m (17,600 ft). Typical expeditions use four camps above Base Camp; these camps give the climbers an opportunity to rest and acclimate (adapt) to the high altitude. The route from Base Camp through the great Khumbu icefall up to Camp I at 5,900 m (19,500 ft) is difficult and dangerous; it usually takes one to three weeks to establish because supplies must be carried up the mountain in several separate trips. Once Camp II, at 6,500 m (21,300 ft), has been supplied in the same manner using both Base Camp and Camp I as bases, climbers typically break down Base Camp and make the trek from there to Camp II in one continuous effort. Once acclimatized, the climbers can make the move to Camp II in five to six hours. Camp III is then established near the cirque of the Khumbu glacier at 7,300 m (24,000 ft). The route up the cirque headwall from Camp III to the South Col and Camp IV at 7,900 m (26,000 ft) is highly strenuous and takes about four to eight hours. The South Col is a cold, windy, and desolate place of rocks, snow slabs, littered empty oxygen bottles, and other trash. 。

Deadly Day on Mount Everest 。

Deadly Day on Mount Everest 。

In May 1996 a chain of amateur climbers and professional guides wait their turn to ascend the Hillary Step, a rock face, 12-m (40-ft) tall, (center) just 30 m (100 ft) below the summit of Mount Everest. This photograph was taken by guide Scott Fischer on what became one of the deadliest days ever on Mount Everest. Fischer and several other climbers perished just hours later when a sudden, severe storm trapped several climbing parties high on the mountain. In all, 12 climbers died. Some survivors and other observers believe that the tragedy was due in part to crowded summit conditions—there were simply too many climbers, especially less-experienced climbers, trying to summit Mount Everest at the same time. 。

Encarta Encyclopedia 。

Scott Fischer/Woodfin Camp and Associates, Inc. 。

Full Size

From the South Col to the summit is a climb of only 900 vertical m (3,000 vertical ft), although its fierce exposure to adverse weather and steep drop-offs poses many challenges. The section between 8,530 m (28,000 ft) and the South Summit at 8,750 m (28,700 ft) is particularly treacherous because of the steepness and unstable snow. From the South Summit there remains another 90 vertical m (300 vertical ft) along a terrifying knife-edged ridge. The exposure is extreme, with the possibility of huge vertical drops into Tibet on the right and down the southwest face on the left. A little more than 30 vertical m (100 vertical ft) from the summit is a 12-m (40-ft) chimney across a rock cliff known as the Hillary Step; this is one of the greatest technical challenges of the climb. 。

As the popularity of climbing Everest has increased in recent years, so have safety problems. To pay the high climbing permit fee charged by the Nepalese government, many experienced climbers have recruited wealthy, amateur climbers as teammates. The combination of inexperience, crowded summit conditions (more than 30 have been known to summit the peak on the same day), and extreme weather conditions has led to a number of tragedies in which clients and competent guides alike have died attempting the climb. 。

The large number of trekkers and climbers who visit Nepal and the Everest region contribute to the local economy but also cause serious environmental impact. Such impact includes the burning of wood for fuel, pollution in the form of human waste and trash, and abandoned climbing gear. Although some climbing gear is recycled by local residents either for their own use or for resale, it is estimated that more than 50 tons of plastic, glass, and metal were dumped between 1953 and the mid-1990s in what has been called “the world’s highest junkyard.” Up on the ice, where few local people go, the norm is to throw trash into the many crevasses, where it is ground up and consumed by the action of the ice. A few bits and pieces show up on the lower part of the glacier many years later as they are churned back to the surface, although organic matter is generally consumed or scavenged by local wildlife. At the high-elevation camps, used oxygen bottles are strewn everywhere. 。

Efforts have been made to reduce the negative environmental impact on Mount Everest. The Nepalese government has been using a portion of climbing fees to clean up the area. In 1976, with aid from Sir Edmund Hillary’s Himalayan Trust and the Nepalese government, the Sagarmatha National Park was established to preserve the remaining soil and forest around Mount Everest. By the mid-1990s the park comprised 1,240 sq km (480 sq mi). Trekking and climbing groups must bring their own fuel to the park (usually butane and kerosene), and the cutting of wood is now prohibited. Because the freedoms of Sherpas have been restricted by the park rules, they have not been sympathetic to the existence of the park. Additionally, the Sagarmatha Pollution Control, funded by the World Wildlife Fund and the Himalayan Trust, was established in 1991 to help preserve Everest’s environment. Climbing activity continues to increase, however, and the environmental future of the Mount Everest area remains uncertain.。

有没有SAT必备单词下载呀？

C++之父评论C++与Java。

http://soft.yesky.com/info/223/2414723.shtml。

Linux之父炮轰C++：

http://os.51cto.com/art/200709/55562.htm?1366380720。

Java之父评价C语言之父：我用尽了形容词。

http://www.csdn.net/article/2011-10-19/306010?1366380958。

 

C++之父评论C++与Java。

如果人们非要拿C++和Java来作比较，我建议他们去阅读The Design and Evolution of C++，看看C++为什么是今天这个样子，用我在设计C++时遵从的原则来检验这两种语言。这些原则与SUN的Java开发小组所持的理念显然是不同的。除了表面语法的相似性之外，C++与Java是截然不同的语言。在很多方面，Java更像Smalltalk。（Sun的培训教材清楚地写道：Java在设计上采用了与C++相似的语法，与Smalltalk相似的语义。所以可以说Java与C++是貌合神离，与Smalltalk才是心有灵犀。）Java语言相对简单，这部分是一种错觉，部分是因为这种语言还不完整。随着时间的推移，Java在体积和复杂程度上都会大大增长。在体积上它会增长两到三倍，而且会出现一些实现相关的扩展或者库。这是一条每个成功的商业语言都必须走过的发展之路。随便分析一种你认为在很大范围内取得了成功的语言，我知道肯定是无有例外者，而且实际上这非常有道理。

上边这段话是在Java 1.1推出之前写的。我确信Java需要类似模板的机制，并且需要增强对于固有类型的支持。简单地说，就是为了基本的完整性也应该做这些工作。另外还需要做很多小的改动，大部分是扩展。1998年秋，我从James Gosling（Java语言的创始人）那里得到一份建议书，说是要在Java中增加固有类型、操作符重载以及数学计算支持。

还有一篇论文，是数学分析领域的世界级大师，伯克利大学的W. Kahan教授所写的How Java's Floating-Point Hurts Everyone Everywhere（且看Java的浮点运算如何危害了普天下的芸芸众生），揭露了Java的一些秘密。我发现在电视和出版物中关于Java的鼓吹是不准确的，而且气势汹汹，让人讨厌。大肆叫嚣凡是非Java的代码都是垃圾，这是对程序员的侮辱；建议把所有的保留代码都用Java重写，这是丧心病狂，既不现实也不负责任。Sun和他的追随者似乎觉得为了对付微软罪恶的“帝国时代”，就必须如此自吹自擂。但是侮辱和欺诈只会把那些喜欢使用不同编程语言的程序员逼到微软阵营里去。

Java并非平台无关，它本身就是平台。跟Windows一样，它也是一个专有的商业平台。也就是说，你可以为Windows/Intel编写代码，也可以为Java/JVM编写代码，在任何一种情况下，你都是在为一个属于某个公司的平台写代码，这些代码都是与该公司的商业利益扯在一起的。当然你可以使用任何一种语言，结合操作系统的机制来编写可供JVM执行的程序，但是JVM之类的东西是强烈地偏向于Java语言的。它一点也不像是通用的、公平的、语言中立的VM/OS。私下里，我会坚持使用可移植的C++作大部分工作，用不同的语言作余下的工作。

“Java is not platform-independent, it is the platform”，B. S的这句评语对于C++用户有着很大的影响，有些C++高手甚至把这句话作为自己的签名档，以表明对Java的态度和誓死捍卫C++的决心。

Linux之父炮轰C++：

糟糕程序员的垃圾语言(1)2007-09-09 13:33 刘江 刘江@图灵 我要评论(14) 字号：T | TLinux之父为Linux内核开发而专门打造的版本控制软件Git已经引起了业界的广泛关注。Dmitry Kakurin查看源代码之后，发现使用的是纯C而非C++，表示不可理解。引起了Linux之父炮轰C++：糟糕程序员的垃圾语言。AD： 2013大数据全球技术峰会低价抢票中。

Linux之父炮轰C++：糟糕程序员的垃圾语言Linux之父话糙理不糙不得不看的两次从C++回归C的高手评论C++C语言是否该扔进垃圾桶为什么每个程序员都应该学习C语言？每个程序员都应该学习C语言？我可不这么认为C语言已经死了，5个需要忘却它的理由用C设计 用C++编码为什么使用C++C++0x：崭新的C++，还是另一个Java？编程语言的三大定理动态语言为何难堪重任动态语言面面观Linux之父Linus Torvalds为了Linux内核开发而专门打造的版本控制软件Git已经引起了业界的广泛关注。昨天，有一位Dmitry Kakurin老兄在查看了源代码之后，发现使用的是纯C而非C++，表示不可理解，他直言：“别拿可移植性说事儿，这是屁话（BS，bullshit）。“（此外，他还批评Git蛮力地直接操作文本，既啰嗦又易错，而且很难跟上高层代码逻辑。）”这个BS引起了Torvalds的强烈反应，他用“*YOU* are full of bullshit.”（你才满嘴屁话呢）作为自己反驳的开场白。接着，他先转向了对C++的罕见的火药味十足的炮轰：“C++是一种糟糕的（horrible）语言。而且因为有大量不够标准的程序员在使用而使情况更糟，以至于极容易产生彻头彻尾的垃圾（total and utter crap）。老实说，选择C就是为了把C++程序员踢出去。……我有这样的结论，任何喜欢用C++而不是C开发项目的程序员可能都是我希望踢出去的人，免得他们来搞乱我参与的项目。C++会导致非常非常糟糕的设计选择。你们这些C++程序员总是一上来就用语言的那些‘漂亮的’库特性比如STL、Boost和其他彻头彻尾的垃圾，这可能对你们的程序有所‘帮助’，但是却会导致：

——当库无法工作时无穷无尽的折磨（别跟我说什么STL尤其是Boost很稳定而且可移植性很好，那全是屁话，而且一点都不可笑）

——低效的抽象编程模型，可能在两年之后你会注意到有些抽象效果不怎么样，但是所有代码已经依赖于围绕它设计的‘漂亮’对象模型了，如果不重写应用程序，就无法改正。也就是说，使用优秀的、高效的、系统级的和可移植的C++的唯一方式，最终还是限于使用C本身具有的所有特性。项目限制只用C，意味着参与的人不会捣乱，也意味着会得到许多真正懂得底层问题，而不会折腾那些白痴‘对象模型’垃圾的程序员。

所以，我很抱歉，但是对于Git这样效率是主要目标的软件，C++的所谓优点只是巨大的错误。而我们将看不到这一点的人排除在外却成了一个巨大的附加优势。如果你想要用C++写的版本控制系统，去玩Monotone吧。他们确实使用了‘真格的数据库’，使用了‘漂亮的面向对象库’、使用了‘漂亮的C++抽象’。可是说老实话，所有这些对某些计算机专业人士而言富于吸引力的设计决定，其最终结果确是一堆可怕、难以维护的垃圾。”【070907更新】Torvalds和Dmitry Kakurin争论继续中。对Torvalds的回击，Dmitry反唇相讥：“随着只用C编程的恐龙们逐渐灭绝，你很快就会发现只剩下自己一个人在固执己见。用Git贡献者的数量是说明不了问题的。<显然C++开发者也能够贡献C代码。但是以为他们喜欢这种方式，那可就错了。

没有C的时候我用汇编编程。然后在C++诞生之前，我转向了C。现在我使用C++和C#，而且不再走回头路。差劲的程序员用任何语言都写不出好程序。但是为了将差劲的贡献者拒之门外这样一个没谱的理由而惩罚优秀的开发者，这简直是胡闹。”只过了10几分钟，Torvalds就回贴了：“和你不同的是，我实实在在地给出了不喜欢C++的原因，而且指出了它可能导致的各种问题的一些例子。而你呢，没有给出一条像样的使用C++的理由。事实上，Git比其他软件配置管理软件都要好，而好的品味（taste）和C正是原因之一。”

对上面的最后一句话，Torvalds后来又做了如下补充：

“说得更具体一些：

——简单和清晰的核心数据结构， 非常精益（lean）且颇具雄心的暧昧管理着它们，将“简单胜于花哨”这一方法发挥到极致。

——有意识地不抽象数据结构和算法，因为它们恰恰是Git核心的全部要素（whole point）。        如果你想用更花哨的语言，C++绝对是最糟糕的选择。如果想要真正的高级特性，那就选择有垃圾回收或者好的系统集成的，而不是既缺乏C的简约（sparseness）又缺乏C的直接而且没有重要概念的高层 绑定（high-level bindings to important concepts）的东西。        一言以蔽之，C++正处在困境当中，它既无法帮助原型化或者简单的GUI编程足够简化从而真正可用，不是C那样积极地鼓励你使用简单和直接的语言构造的精益系统编程语言。”      （另一位同学插了一句：这还没有提到很难找到两个C++编译器支持同样的特性。）“这与什么恐龙毫无关系。好的品味永远不会过时。将C与汇编语言相提并论，恰恰说明你对自己所讨论的问题缺乏起码的概念（don't have a friggin idea）。”

Java之父评价C语言之父：我用尽了形容词。

摘要：Java 之父James Gosling在上周发布了关于讨论C语言之父Dennis Ritchie的简短博文称：C语言撑起了一切，他的影响巨大，并超越了科技世界。

Java之父詹姆斯·高斯林（James Gosling）在上周发布了关于讨论C语言之父丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）的简短博文：丹尼斯·里奇辞世的新闻如五雷轰顶。过去几天已经有很多资讯报道此事。他的影响巨大，并超越了科技世界，虽然他的大多影响都不为人知，但完全可以感受到。C语言撑起了一切。我的整个职业生涯也是从C语言和Unix中发展而来。对当今的大多数工程师而言，很难理解我在20世纪70年代感受到的幸福愉快感。当一种编程语言最终出现，我（其他人也）可以从汇编语言提升到一种真正的编程语言。我们可以做任何一切，过去我们得编写所有低级位系统。在C语言之前，编程语言达不到任务：开销太大了。系统的复杂性是真的阻碍了用汇编语言编写大型软件。C语言就像代码的JATO。（编注：“JATO”是“Jet-fuel assisted take off”的缩写，字面意思：“辅助起飞的喷气燃料”。这个系统通过小型火箭提供辅助动力，以帮助超载的飞机起飞升空。）下面是詹姆斯·高斯林此文的一些评论：Truely James. For every Computer professional in the world, the first language they come across is C. With so much of wonderfulness and which also makes the learning experience so fun and entertaining. RIP Ritchie!!!说的很对，詹姆斯！对于每个计算机专业人士，他们所接触的第一种编程语言就是C语言。（C语言）有着如此多的令人惊奇的地方，这也使得学习过程非常有趣。安息，里奇！！！Great ones are falling. I still love C. So simple. So powerful.一位巨星的陨落。我仍然爱着C语言。如此简单，如此强大。I remember C being like Adventure for programmers: lots of little pits for the unwary to fall into. Even after many years there were a few I hadn't found. It was a good time.我记得C语言就是程序员的冒险：有很多小坑，一不小心就陷进去。即便很多年过后，还有一些我没有发现的。那是个美好时刻。The equation is quite simple : Richie is like Einstein, pure Genius. All the IT is built on K&amp;R works. Thanks man, and RIP...等式非常简单：里奇就像爱因斯坦，纯粹的天才。IT业的所有都基于肯贝汉和里奇的成果。感谢，安息……文章出自：nighthacks译文来自：伯乐在线。

300个最常用SAT单词

1.conventional (100)based on accepted practice; traditional; customary; normal; ordinary; orthodox (convention, unconventional)。

2.undermine (99)to hurt, weaken, or destroy, often in an underhanded or sneaky way。

3.dismissive (90)rejecting another’s thoughts or ideas, usually as not worthy of consideration; condescending (dismiss)。

4.aesthetic (86)relating to what is beautiful; beautiful; pleasing(aesthetics, aesthete, unaesthetic)。

5.objective (77)based on facts rather than personal feelings;unbiased; not personal; not subjective; true(objectivity)。

6.reconcile (75)to adjust the differences between things; to reach an agreement, especially after an argument; tomake up; to overcome discord; to try to be inclusive(reconciliation, conciliatory, irreconcilable)。

7.speculative (74)taking a chance; risky; uncertain; cannot be confirmed (speculate, speculation)。

8.accessible (71)being able to enter or approach a place; approachable; friendly; genial; gregarious (access, inaccessible)。

9.decorum (68)proper; correct behavior or etiquette; good manners; refinement (decorous, indecorous)。

10.impulsive (67)tending to act on impulse and without thought;rash; impetuous; unrestrained; capricious(impulses)。

11.deride (67)to ridicule something; to laugh at something as ridiculous; to mock; to satirize (derision, derisory, risible)。

12.suppress (67)to stop something from rising or coming out by holding it down; to repress (suppression)。

13.complacent (66)overly pleased with an accomplishment; overconfident; self-satisfied; so unwary as to be foolish (complacency)。

14.reverent (66)deeply honoring or respectful—and so not joking around; venerating (revere, reverence, reverential, irreverent)。

15.disparage (65)to insult or put down; to offend。

16.relevant (65)relating to the subject at hand; important or significant; pertinent (relevance, irrelevant)。

17.prudent (62)careful; cautious, especially about money; having good judgment; circumspect; wary (prudence, imprudent)。

18.refute (62)to prove wrong or false (refutation, irrefutable)。

19.inevitable (61)certain to happen; unavoidable (inevitability)。

20.innocuous (60)harmless; not dangerous at all; not likely to provokea strong reaction; inconsequential。

21.convey (60)to make something known; to reveal; to communicate; to depict。

22.profound (59)wise; deep; beneath the surface (profundity)。

23.ironic (59)a statement or situation that conveys a second meaning at odds with the apparent meaning; humorous (irony)。

24.ambivalent (58)undecided; feeling positively and negatively towards something (ambivalence)。

25.pragmatic (58)getting things done in an effective way; practical; emphasizing the practical; expedient (pragmatism, pragmatist)。

26.innovative (58)new; revolutionary (innovation)。

27.rational (57)based on reason rather than emotions; logical;sensible (irrational, rationale, rationalize)。

28.abstract (57)based on general ideas; not solid or concrete; vague;hypothetical (abstraction)。

29.distinct (57)clearly separate from others; not identical; different; clear; conspicuous; lucid (distinction, distinctive, indistinct)。

30.felicitous (56)well-chosen; especially appropriate; pleasing(felicity, infelicity)。

31.resolute (56)determined to succeed; not easily discouraged; persistent; tenacious (resolution, irresolute, resolve, unresolved)。

32.diverse (55)varying; something composed of distinct or unlike elements or qualities (diversity, diversify)。

33.trivial (53)unimportant; insignificant; negligible;inconsequential (trivialize, triviality)。

34.discern (53)to notice; to see clearly; to distinguish; to discriminate (discerning, discernment, indiscernible)。

35.enhance (53)to strengthen; to improve (enhancement)。

36.redundant (52)extra, so not needed; extraneous (redundancy)。

37.tempered (52)mild; not severe or extreme; controlled; moderate;restrained (temperate, temperance, intemperate)。

38.dubious (52)doubtful, and probably untrue; implausible。

39.depict (51)to represent in words or pictures; to describe a scene or situation; to show; to convey (depiction)。

40.compelling (51)to arouse a feeling irresistibly; forceful; incisive; provocative; engaging (compel, compulsion, compulsory)。

41.indifferent (51)not caring about something—such as an outcome—one way or the other; apathetic (indifference)。

42.embellish (50)to decorate; to make beautiful or aesthetic; to make additions to, especially as in adding fictitiousdetails to a story (embellishment)。

43.supplant (50)to replace as better。

44.fabricate (49)to make or devise something; to make up an elaborate story, as in to lie (fabrication, fabricator)。

45.plausible (49)believable; probably; likely (implausible)。

46.parallel (49)something equivalent; a comparison; an analogy(unparalleled)。

47.eradicate (49)to wipe out; to eliminate; to destroy (ineradicable)。

48.dominant (49)having great or complete power or influence over someone or something; primary (dominate, domination, predominant)。

49.deleterious (49)harmful。

50.discord (48)disagreement; disharmony, especially among people; tension or unease between people, andoften the resulting confusion (discordant, concord, accord)。

51.futile (48)completely useless or ineffective; so hopeless that effort to change a situation is wasted (futility)。

52.indulgent (47)giving in to another’s wishes; permissive; lenient; tolerant; condoning (indulge, overindulge, self- indulgent)。

53.indignant (47)annoyed or insulted, especially about one’s dignity;angered (indignity)。

54.eclectic (47)selecting the best from different sources; selective;varied。

55.vindicate (47)to prove someone right in the end; to free him or her from blame; to exonerate (vindication)。

56.exemplary (46)showing by being great example; outstanding(exemplar, exemplify)。

57.inhibit (46)to block; to hold back; to impede or suppress(inhibition)。

58.discredit (46)to harm someone’s reputation; to show something should not be trusted or believed (credit)。

59.contemporary (46)occurring at the present time; occurring at the same time in history; modern (contemporaries, contemporaneous)。

60.provoke (45)to arouse strong feelings in someone; to anger(provocative, provocation)。

61.solicitous (45)eager to help; asking if one can help; sympathetic(solicit, solicitude)。

62.daunting (45)discouraging; intimidating; scary (undaunted)。

63.skepticism (44)doubt (skeptical, skeptic)。

64.coherent (44)sticking together in a unified whole; orderly;logically understandable; lucid (incoherent)。

65.autonomy (44)independence; self-government (autonomous)。

66.comprehensive (44)all-inclusive; thorough; complete; encompassing a great deal。

67.ambiguous (44)unclear; capable of being interpreted in more than one way; uncertain; doubtful; dubious; notdefinitive (ambiguity, unambiguous)。

68.pretentious (43)believing oneself to better than others; boastful; affected; not modest or reserved (pretense, pretension)。

69.rhetoric (43)impressive sounding, though sometimes empty, words; a formal speech (rhetorical)。

70.ephemeral (43)short-lived; present so fleetingly as barely to exist;transient; evanescent。

71.spurious (43)not genuine; fake; false; inauthentic。

72.valid (43)well-grounded; sound; logical; effective; legal;legitimate (validity, invalid)。

73.contempt (43)looking down on others or feeling superior to them;to feel that someone or something deserves great disrespect; condescension (contemptuous)。

74.restrained (43)calm and collected; controlled; not impulsive;reserved (self-restraint)。

75.mundane (43)relating to everyday life; uninspired; banal; prosaic。

76.impetuous (43)rash; impulsive; capricious; not retrained(impetuosity)。

77.repudiate (42)to reject a person or an idea completely; to have nothing to do with any longer (repudiation)。

78.definitive (42)settling a disputed matter finally; no longer tentative; conclusive; authoritative; decisive(defining, indefinite)。

79.debunk (42)to prove wrong or false; to invalidate。

80.divergent (41)to separate; to split away from; to move apart; to travel in different directions (diverge, converge)。

81.digress (41)to wander away from a topic; to change the subjectof a discussion momentarily (digression, digressive)。

82.sustain (41)to hold up; to support; to keep something going(sustenance)。

83.incongruous (41)not fitting or matching; seeming out of place(incongruity, congruent)。

84.diffident (40)lacking confidence; shy; reserved; apprehensive;wary (diffidence)。

85.subtle (40)so slight as to be hard to notice; hard to distinguish or discern (subtlety)。

86.transient (40)passing through a place quickly; not lasting; short- lived; transitory; ephemeral; evanescent(transience)。

87.serene (40)not disturbed; peaceful; quiet; tranquil (serenity)。

88.inconsequential (40) not worth noticing; unimportant; so insignificantas to have no consequences; negligible; trivial; trite(consequence)。

89.scrutinize (40)to examine something closely and completely, especially with an aim to finding faults (scrutiny, inscrutable)。

90.assert (40)to state a belief positively; to claim, often without proof (assertion, assertive)。

91.foster (40)to promote; to encourage; to contribute to something’s growth。

92.perplex (40)to confuse; to mystify (perplexing, perplexity)。

93.narrative (40)an account, story, or history about something(narrate, narrator, narration)。

94.prosaic (39)ordinary; matter-of-fact; lacking imagination;uninspired; hackneyed; mundane; banal (prose)。

95.substantiate (39)to offer supporting evidence; to help prove; to corroborate (unsubstantiated, substantive, substantial; insubstantial)。

96.optimistic (39)hopeful; looking on the bright side; expecting the best; sanguine (optimism, optimist)。

97.tranquil (39)calm; peaceful; quiet; relaxing; serene (tranquility)。

98.denounce (39)to put someone down, often publicly; to blame someone; to accuse (denunciation)。

99.condescend (38)to talk down to; to act superior to; to dismiss; to treat with contempt (condescending, condescension)。

100. partisan (38)supporting one side in a dispute, especially over political matters; biased; not detached or objective(bipartisan, nonpartisan)。

101. prosperity (38)success, especially financial (prosper, prosperous)。

102. lucid (38)clear; easily understood; transparent; coherent(elucidate, pellucid)。

103. advocate (38)someone who supports a cause; a supporter; a champion; a proponent (advocacy)。

104. distinguish (38)to notice; to pick something out, as a person in a crowd; to see something as different; to discriminate; to discern (distinguished, indistinguishable)。

105. superficial (37)only on the surface; shallow; unimportant。

106. illusory (37)seemingly real but not; deceptive; false; inauthentic(disillusion, illusive)。

107. apprehensive (36)having great doubts; nervous; fearful; diffident(apprehension, apprehend)。

108. nostalgia (36)fondness for and missing the past, especially one’s own; missing the good old days (nostalgic)。

109. benevolent (36)kind; generous; tending to help others; solicitous(benevolence)。

110. sympathy (36)sharing feelings; showing concern for another; harmonious; solicitude (sympathetic, sympathies, unsympathetic)。

111. corrupt (36)to ruin something, especially a person’s morals; to make impure; to decay (corruption, incorruptible)。

112. polemical (35)arguing a position, especially a radical one(polemics, polemicist)。

113. belie (35)to contradict; to fail to confirm (belied, belying)。

114. mock (35)to ridicule; to make fun of, often as something fake;to satirize (mockery)。

115. compromised (35)to make insecure or to place in danger; to come to an agreement by settling differences; agreeing to something partially (uncompromising)。

116. disdain (34)considering someone or something beneath oneself;to have contempt for; to despise; condescension。

117. presumption (34)a bold assumption; being overly bold with someoneto the point of disrespect (presume, presuming, presumptuous)。

118. caustic (34)burning; sarcastic。

119. deferential (34)respectful; reverent; venerating (defer, deferred, deferral)。

120. subjective (34)open to interpretation; reflecting someone’s perspective; biased; not objective。

121. capricious (34)unpredictable; whimsical; to act with complete spontaneity; impulsive; impetuous; acting without restraint (caprice)。

122. animated (34)lively; vigorous (animation)。

123. endorse (34)to support; to approve; to champion; to authorize;to advocate; to commend (endorsement)。

124. auspicious (34)promising; favorable (inauspicious)。

125. exacerbate (33)to make a bad situation worse; to worsen。

126. obscure (33)not easily noticed; dark or shadowy; unclear; vague(obscurity)。

127. dogmatic (33)stubbornly opinionated; arrogantly inflexible; close- minded; intractable (dogma, dogmatism)。

128. extravagant (33)fancy; luxurious; immoderate (extravagance)。

129. venerate (33)to honor above others; to revere (venerable)。

130. gregarious (33)friendly; outgoing; genial。

131. attain (33)to achieve, especially a goal; to get。

132. elude (33)to avoid being found or caught, usually by being clever (elusive)。

133. tenacious (33)persistent, especially in the face of continuing challenges; stubborn; resolute; rarely if ever resigned (tenacity, pertinacious)。

134. mediate (33)to try to help two arguing sides reach an agreement; to reconcile to parties (mediator, mediation)。

135. meticulous (32)careful; thorough; painstaking; scrupulous;exacting。

136. negligible (32)extremely small; so unimportant that it can be ignored; inconsequential; trivial。

137. equanimity (32)calm; composure, especially under difficult circumstances。

138. mitigate (32)to lessen the severity or force of something, especially of something bad or harmful; to moderate; to alleviate (mitigating, unmitigated)。

139. transitory (32)of short duration; brief; ephemeral; transient;mutable。

140. immutable (32)unchanging; not able to change; everlasting(mutable)。

141. evoke (32)to inspire; to arouse; to bring forth (evocative)。

142. cursory (32)hurried and superficial; quick; perfunctory; not meticulous。

143. rancor (32)extremely bad feelings about something; bitterness(rancorous)。

144. authentic (32)genuine; true; real; valid (authenticity, inauthentic)。

145. reserved (32)generally quiet and reserved in behavior; modest(reservation, unreserved)。

146. intuitive (31)knowing by instinct as opposed to rational thought; what you would expect without having to give much thought to the matter (intuit, intuition, counterintuitive)。

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