查尔斯·马丁·史密斯 Charles Martin Smith 生于1953年 10月30日 ,美国加州。
《幸运牌手 Lucky You 》 (2007) ...Roy Durucher。
《 Jack and Jill vs. the World 》 (2007) ...Carlin。
《 Still Small Voices 》 (2006) ...Burton Hayes。
《末日大战 Left Behind: World at War 》 (2005) ...Vice President John Mallory。
《 Icon 》 (2005) ...Doctor (unconfirmed)。
《 Icon 》 (2005) ...。
《 "Da Vinci's City Hall" 》(2005) ...(3 episodes, 2005-2006)。
《 "The Triangle" 》 (2005) ...Captain Jay。
《 "Da Vinci's City Hall" 》 (2005) ...Joe Friedland / ... (13 episodes, 2005-2006)。
《最后的赌局 The Last Casino 》 (2004) ...Barnes。
《 Make the Movie Live the Movie 》 (2004) ...Himself。
《 The Clinic 》(2004) ...executive producer。
《 The Clinic 》 (2004) ...(written by)。
《 "Kingdom Hospital" 》 (2004) ...Earl Swinton。
《 The Untouchables: The Classic 》 (2004) ...Himself。
《 The Untouchables: Production Stories 》 (2004) ...Himself。
《 The Untouchables: The Script, the Cast 》 (2004) ...Himself (archive footage)。
《 The Untouchables: Re-Inventing the Genre 》 (2004) ...Himself。
《 The Snow Walker 》 (2003) ...screenplay。
《 The Snow Walker 》 (2003) ...。
《 Dead Heat 》 (2002) ...Marty。
《 Dead Heat 》 (2002) ...executive producer。
《 Roughing It 》 (2002) ...。
《 Roughing It 》 (2002) ...Platt。
《 Touching Wild Horses 》 (2002) ...。
《银发真情赤子心 Here's to Life! 》 (2000) ...Ned。
《银发真情赤子心 Here's to Life! 》 (2000) ...executive producer。
《阴魂不散 The Apartment Complex 》 (1999) ...Gary Glumley。
《 "P.T. Barnum" 》 (1999) ...Beach。
《彗星撞地球/天地大冲撞/末日救未来/天摇地动/天摇地动 Deep Impact 》 (1998) ...Marcus Wolf。
《 Hoods 》 (1998) ...Gun Dealer (uncredited)。
《惊爆死亡线 Blackout Effect 》 (1998) ...Henry Drake。
《 "Da Vinci's Inquest" 》(1998) ...(1 episode, 2004)。
《神犬也疯狂 Air Bud 》 (1997) ...。
《 Dead Silence 》 (1997) ...Roland W. Marks。
《 Wedding Bell Blues 》 (1996) ...Oliver Napier。
《引爆生死线 Final Cut, The 》 (1995) ...Capt. Weldon Mamet。
《超完美目证 Perfect Alibi 》 (1995) ...Franklin Dupard。
《 "Space: Above and Beyond" 》 (1995) ...(3 episodes, 1995-1996)。
《 "Streets of Laredo" 》 (1995) ...Ned Brookshire (railroad accountant)。
《 Roswell 》 (1994) ...Sheriff Wilcox。
《我爱麻烦 I Love Trouble 》 (1994) ...Rick Medwick。
《爱得没话说 Speechless 》 (1994) ...Kratz。
《世纪的哭泣 And the Band Played On 》 (1993) ...Dr. Harold Jaffe。
《 Boris and Natasha 》 (1992) ...。
《 Boris and Natasha 》 (1992) ...Hotel Clerk。
《卧龙战警 Deep Cover 》 (1992) ...Gerald Carver。
《绝命急先锋 Fifty/Fifty 》 (1992) ...Martin Sprue。
《绝命急先锋 Fifty/Fifty 》 (1992) ...。
《激情沸点 Hot Spot, The 》 (1990) ...Lon Gulick。
《搅局专家 Experts, The 》 (1989) ...Cameron Smith。
《义胆雄心 Untouchables, The 》 (1987) ...Agent Oscar Wallace。
《魔界舞男 Trick or Treat 》 (1986) ...。
《魔界舞男 Trick or Treat 》 (1986) ...Mr. Wimbley。
《 "The Ray Bradbury Theater" 》 (1985) ...Douglas Rogers / ... (2 episodes, 1986-1989)。
《外星恋 Starman 》 (1984) ...Mark Shermin。
《狼踪 Never Cry Wolf 》(1983) ...Farley Mowat/Tyler。
《狼踪 Never Cry Wolf 》 (1983) ...(narration) &。
《 Herbie Goes Bananas 》 (1980) ...Davie Johns。
《 More American Graffiti 》 (1979) ...Terry The Toad。
《 Cotton Candy 》 (1978) ...George Smalley。
《 Cotton Candy 》 (1978) ...songs。
《英才恨 Buddy Holly Story, The 》 (1978) ...Ray Bob Simmons (Crickets stand-up bass)。
《 No Deposit, No Return 》 (1976) ...Det. Longnecker。
《 Rafferty and the Gold Dust Twins 》 (1975) ...Alan Boone。
《 Spikes Gang, The 》 (1974) ...Tod。
《 Go Ask Alice 》 (1973) ...Jim。
《比利小子 Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid 》 (1973) ...Charlie Bowdre。
《美国风情画 American Graffiti 》 (1973) ...Terry 'The Toad' Fields。
《 Culpepper Cattle Company, The 》 (1972) ...Tim Slater, Ben's Friend。
《大搜索 Fuzz 》 (1972) ...Baby。
内存发展史
在了解内存的发展之前,我们应该先解释一下几个常用词汇,这将有助于我们加强对内存的理解。
RAM就是RandomAccessMemory(随机存贮器)的缩写。它又分成两种StaticRAM(静态随机存贮器)和DynamicRAM(动态随机存贮器)。
SRAM曾经是一种主要的内存,SRAM速度很快而且不用刷新就能保存数据不丢失。它以双稳态电路形式存储数据,结构复杂,内部需要使用更多的晶体管构成寄存器以保存数据,所以它采用的硅片面积相当大,制造成本也相当高,所以现在只能把SRAM用在比主内存小的多的高速缓存上。随着Intel将L2高速缓存整合入CPU(从Medocino开始)后,SRAM失去了最大应用需求来源,还好在移动电话从模拟转向数字的发展趋势中,终于为具有省电优势的SRAM寻得了另一个需求成长的契机,再加上网络服务器、路由器等的需求激励,才使得SRAM市场勉强得以继续成长。
DRAM,顾名思义即动态RAM。DRAM的结构比起SRAM来说要简单的多,基本结构是一只MOS管和一个电容构成。具有结构简单、集成度高、功耗低、生产成本低等优点,适合制造大容量存储器,所以现在我们用的内存大多是由DRAM构成的。所以下面主要介绍DRAM内存。在详细说明DRAM存储器前首先要说一下同步的概念,根据内存的访问方式可分为两种:同步内存和异步内存。区分的标准是看它们能不能和系统时钟同步。内存控制电路(在主板的芯片组中,一般在北桥芯片组中)发出行地址选择信号(RAS)和列地址选择信号(CAS)来指定哪一块存储体将被访问。在SDRAM之前的EDO内存就采用这种方式。读取数据所用的时间用纳秒表示。当系统的速度逐渐增加,特别是当66MHz频率成为总线标准时,EDO内存的速度就显得很慢了,CPU总要等待内存的数据,严重影响了性能,内存成了一个很大的瓶颈。因此出现了同步系统时钟频率的SDRAM。DRAM的分类FPDRAM:又叫快页内存,在386时代很流行。因为DRAM需要恒电流以保存信息,一旦断电,信息即丢失。它的刷新频率每秒钟可达几百次,但由于FPDRAM使用同一电路来存取数据,所以DRAM的存取时间有一定的时间间隔,这导致了它的存取速度并不是很快。另外,在DRAM中,由于存储地址空间是按页排列的,所以当访问某一页面时,切换到另一页面会占用CPU额外的时钟周期。其接口多为72线的SIMM类型。EDODRAM:EDORAM――ExtendedDateOutRAM——外扩充数据模式存储器,EDO-RAM同FPDRAM相似,它取消了扩展数据输出内存与传输内存两个存储周期之间的时间间隔,在把数据发送给CPU的同时去访问下一个页面,故而速度要比普通DRAM快15~30%。工作电压为一般为5V,其接口方式多为72线的SIMM类型,但也有168线的DIMM类型。EDODRAM这种内存流行在486以及早期的奔腾电脑上。当前的标准是SDRAM(同步DRAM的缩写),顾名思义,它是同步于系统时钟频率的。SDRAM内存访问采用突发(burst)模式,它和原理是,SDRAM在现有的标准动态存储器中加入同步控制逻辑(一个状态机),利用一个单一的系统时钟同步所有的地址数据和控制信号。使用SDRAM不但能提高系统表现,还能简化设计、提供高速的数据传输。在功能上,它类似常规的DRAM,也需时钟进行刷新。可以说,SDRAM是一种改善了结构的增强型DRAM。然而,SDRAM是如何利用它的同步特性而适应高速系统的需要的呢?我们知道,原先我们使用的动态存储器技术都是建立在异步控制基础上的。系统在使用这些异步动态存储器时需插入一些等待状态来适应异步动态存储器的本身需要,这时,指令的执行时间往往是由内存的速度、而非系统本身能够达到的最高速率来决定。例如,当将连续数据存入CACHE时,一个速度为60ns的快页内存需要40ns的页循环时间;当系统速度运行在100MHz时(一个时钟周期10ns),每执行一次数据存取,即需要等待4个时钟周期!而使用SDRAM,由于其同步特性,则可避免这一时。SDRAM结构的另一大特点是其支持DRAM的两列地址同时打开。两个打开的存储体间的内存存取可以交叉进行,一般的如预置或激活列可以隐藏在存储体存取过程中,即允许在一个存储体读或写的同时,令一存储体进行预置。按此进行,100MHz的无缝数据速率可在整个器件读或写中实现。因为SDRAM的速度约束着系统的时钟速度,它的速度是由MHz或ns来计算的。SDRAM的速度至少不能慢于系统的时钟速度,SDRAM的访问通常发生在四个连续的突发周期,第一个突发周期需要4个系统时钟周期,第二到第四个突发周期只需要1个系统时钟周期。用数字表示如下:4-1-1-1。顺便提一下BEDO(BurstEDO)也就是突发EDO内存。实际上其原理和性能是和SDRAM差不多的,因为Intel的芯片组支持SDRAM,由于INTEL的市场领导地位帮助SDRAM成为市场的标准。
DRAMR的两种接口类型DRAM主要有两种接口类型,既早期的SIMM和现在的标准DIMM。SIMM是Single-InLineMemoryModule的简写,即单边接触内存模组,这是486及其较早的PC机中常用的内存的接口方式。在更早的PC机中(486以前),多采用30针的SIMM接口,而在Pentium中,应用更多的则是72针的SIMM接口,或者是与DIMM接口类型并存。DIMM是DualIn-LineMemoryModule的简写,即双边接触内存模组,也就是说这种类型接口内存的插板的两边都有数据接口触片,这种接口模式的内存广泛应用于现在的计算机中,通常为84针,但由于是双边的,所以一共有84×2=168线接触,故而人们经常把这种内存称为168线内存,而把72线的SIMM类型内存模组直接称为72线内存。DRAM内存通常为72线,EDO-RAM内存既有72线的,也有168线的,而SDRAM内存通常为168线的。新的内存标准在新的世纪到来之时,也带来了计算机硬件的重大改变。计算机的制造工艺发展到已经可以把微处理器(CPU)的时钟频率提高的一千兆的边缘。相应的内存也必须跟得上处理器的速度才行。现在有两个新的标准,DDRSDRAM内存和Rambus内存。它们之间的竞争将会成为PC内存市场竞争的核心。DDRSDRAM代表着一条内存逐渐演化的道路。Rambus则代表着计算机设计上的重大变革。从更远一点的角度看。DDRSDRAM是一个开放的标准。然而Rambus则是一种专利。它们之间的胜利者将会对计算机制造业产生重大而深远的影响。
RDRAM在工作频率上有大幅度的提升,但这一结构的改变,涉及到包括芯片组、DRAM制造、封装、测试甚至PCB及模组等的全面改变,可谓牵一发而动全身。未来高速DRAM结构的发展究竟如何?
Intel重新整装再发的820芯片组,是否真能如愿以偿地让RDRAM登上主流宝座?PC133SDRAM:PC133SDRAM基本上只是PC100SDRAM的延伸,不论在DRAM制造、封装、模组、连接器方面,都延续旧有规范,它们的生产设备相同,因此生产成本也几乎与PC100SDRAM相同。严格来说,两者的差别仅在于相同制程技术下,所多的一道「筛选」程序,将速度可达133MHz的颗粒挑选出来而已。若配合可支持133MHz外频的芯片组,并提高CPU的前端总线频率(FrontSideBus)到133MHz,便能将DRAM带宽提高到1GB/sec以上,从而提高整体系统性能。DDR-SDRAM:DDRSDRAM(DoubleDataRateDRAM)或称之为SDRAMⅡ,由于DDR在时钟的上升及下降的边缘都可以传输资料,从而使得实际带宽增加两倍,大幅提升了其性能/成本比。就实际功能比较来看,由PC133所衍生出的第二代PC266DDRSRAM(133MHz时钟×2倍数据传输=266MHz带宽),不仅在InQuest最新测试报告中显示其性能平均高出Rambus24.4%,在Micron的测试中,其性能亦优于其他的高频宽解决方案,充份显示出DDR在性能上已足以和Rambus相抗衡的程度。DirectRambus-DRAM:RambusDRAM设计与以往DRAM很大的不同之处在于,它的微控制器与一般内存控制器不同,使得芯片组必须重新设计以符合要求,此外,数据通道接口也与一般内存不同,Rambus以2条各8bit宽(含ECC则为9bit)的数据通道(channel)传输数据,虽然比SDRAM的64bit窄,但其时钟频率却可高达400MHz,且在时钟的上升和下降沿都能传输数据,因而能达到1.6GB/sec的尖峰带宽。
各种DRAM规格之综合比较数据带宽:从数据带宽来看,传统PC100在时钟频率为100MHz的情况下,尖峰数据传输率可达到800MB/sec。若以先进0.25微米线程制造的DRAM,大都可以「筛选」出时钟频率达到133MHz的PC133颗粒,可将尖峰数据传输率再次提高至1.06GB/sec,只要CPU及芯片组能配合,就可提高整体系统性能。此外,就DDR而言,由于其在时钟上升和下降沿都能传输数据,所以在相同133MHz的时钟频率下,其尖峰数据传输将可大幅提高两倍,达到2.1GB/sec的水准,其性能甚至比现阶段Rambus所能达到的1.6GB/sec更高。
传输模式:传统SDRAM采用并列数据传输方式,Rambus则采取了比较特别的串行传输方式。在串行的传输方式之下,资料信号都是一进一出,可以把数据带宽降为16bit,而且可大幅提高工作时钟频率(400MHz),但这也形成了模组在数据传输设计上的限制。也就是说,在串接的模式下,如果有其中一个模组损坏、或是形成断路,便会使整个系统无法正常开机。因此,对采用Rambus内存模组的主机板而言,便必须将三组内存扩充插槽完全插满,如果Rambus模组不足的话,只有安装不含RDRAM颗粒的中继模组(ContinuityRIMMModule;C-RIMM),纯粹用来提供信号的串接工作,让数据的传输畅通。模组及PCB的设计:由于Rambus的工作频率高达400MHz,所以不管是电路设计、线路布局、颗粒封装及记忆模组的设计等,都和以往SDRAM大为不同。以模组设计而言,RDRAM所构成的记忆模组称之为RIMM(RambusInMemoryModule),目前的设计可采取4、6、8、12与16颗等不同数目的RDRAM颗粒来组成,虽然引脚数提高到了184只,但整个模组的长度却与原有DIMM相当。另外,在设计上,Rambus的每一个传输信道所能承载的芯片颗粒数目有限(最多32颗),从而造成RDRAM内存模组容量将有所限制。也就是说,如果已经安装了一只含16颗RDARM颗粒的RIMM模组时,若想要再扩充内存,最多只能再安装具有16颗RDARM的模组。另外,由于RDARM在高频下工作将产生高温,所以RIMM模组在设计时必须加上一层散热片,也增加了RIMM模组的成本。
颗粒的封装:DRAM封装技术从最早的DIP、SOJ提高到TSOP的形式。从现在主流SDRAM的模组来看,除了胜创科技首创的TinyBGA技术和樵风科技首创的BLP封装模式外,绝大多数还是采用TSOP的封装技术。
随着DDR、RDRAM的陆续推出,将内存频率提高到一个更高的水平上,TSOP封装技术渐渐有些力不从心了,难以满足DRAM设计上的要求。从Intel力推的RDRAM来看,采用了新一代的μBGA封装形式,相信未来DDR等其他高速DRAM的封装也会采取相同或不同的BGA封装方式。尽管RDRAM在时钟频率上有了突破性的进展,有效地提高了整个系统性能,但毕竟在实际使用上,其规格与现阶段主流的SDRAM有很大的差异,不仅不兼容于现有系统芯片组而成了Intel一家独揽的局面。甚至在DRAM模组的设计上,不仅使用了最新一代的BGA封装方式,甚至在电路板的设计上,都采取用了8层板的严格标准,更不用说在测试设备上的庞大投资。使得大多数的DRAM及模组厂商不敢贸然跟进。
再说,由于Rambus是个专利标准,想生产RDRAM的厂商必须先取得Rambus公司的认证,并支付高额的专利费用。不仅加重了各DRAM厂商的成本负担,而且它们担心在制定未来新一代的内存标准时会失去原来掌握的规格控制能力。
由于RIMM模组的颗粒最多只能为32颗,限制了Rambus应用,只能用在入门级服务器和高级PC上。或许就PC133而言,在性能上无法和Rambus抗衡,但是一旦整合了DDR技术后,其数据带宽可达到2.1GB/sec,不仅领先Rambus所能达到的1.6GB/sec标准,而且由于其开放的标准及在兼容性上远比Rambus高的原故,估计将会对Rambus造成非常大的杀伤力。更何况台湾在威盛与AMD等联盟的强力支持下,Intel是否能再象往日一般地呼风唤雨,也成了未知数。至少,在低价PC及网络PC方面,Rambus的市场将会很小。
结论:尽管Intel采取了种种不同的策略布局及对策,要想挽回Rambus的气势,但毕竟像Rambus这种具有突破性规格的产品,在先天上便存在有着诸多较难克服的问题。或许Intel可以藉由更改主机板的RIMM插槽方式、或是提出SDRAM与RDRAM共同存在的过渡性方案(S-RIMM、RIMMRiser)等方式来解决技术面上的问题。但一旦涉及规模量产成本的控制问题时,便不是Intel所能一家独揽的,更何况在网络趋势下的计算机应用将愈来愈趋于低价化,市场需求面是否对Rambus有兴趣,则仍有待考验。 在供给方面,从NEC独创的VCMSDRAM规格(VirtualChannelMemory)、以及Samsung等DRAM大厂对Rambus支持态度已趋保守的情况来看,再加上相关封装及测试等设备上的投资不足,估计年底之前,Rambus内存模组仍将缺乏与PC133甚至DDR的价格竞争力。就长远的眼光来看,Rambus架构或许可以成为主流,但应不再会是主导市场的绝对主流,而SDRAM架构(PC133、DDR)在低成本的优势,以及广泛的应用领域,应该会有非常不错的表现。相信未来的DRAM市场,将会是多种结构并存的局面。
具最新消息,可望成为下一世代内存主力的RambusDRAM因芯片组延迟推出,而气势稍挫的情况之下,由全球多家半导体与电脑大厂针对DDRSDRAM的标准化,而共同组成的AMII(AdvancedMemoryInternationalInc、)阵营,则决定积极促进比PC200、PC266速度提高10倍以上的PC1600与PC2100DDRSDRAM规格的标准化,此举使得RambusDRAM与DDRSDRAM的内存主导权之争,迈入新的局面。全球第二大微处理器制造商AMD,决定其Athlon处理器将采用PC266规格的DDRSDRAM,而且决定在今年年中之前,开发支持DDRSDRAM的芯片组,这使DDRSDRAM阵营深受鼓舞。全球内存业者极有可能将未来投资的重心,由RambusDRAM转向DDRSDRAM。
综上所述,今年DDRSDRAM的发展势头要超过RAMBUS。而且DDRSDRAM的生产成本只有SDRAM的1.3倍,在生产成本上更具优势。未来除了DDR和RAMBUS外还有其他几种有希望的内存产品,下面介绍其中的几种:SLDRAM(SyncLinkDRAM,同步链接内存):SLDRAM也许是在速度上最接近RDRAM的竞争者。SLDRAM是一种增强和扩展的SDRAM架构,它将当前的4体(Bank)结构扩展到16体,并增加了新接口和控制逻辑电路。
。SLDRAM像SDRAM一样使用每个脉冲沿传输数据。
VirtualChannelDRAM:VirtualChannel“虚拟信道”是加装在内存单元与主控芯片上的内存控制部分之间,相当于缓存的一类寄存器。使用VC技术后,当外部对内存进行读写操作时,将不再直接对内存芯片中的各个单元进行读写操作,而改由VC代理。VC本身所具有的缓存效果也不容小觑,当内存芯片容量为目前最常见的64Mbit时,VC与内存单元之间的带宽已达1024bit。即便不考虑前/后台并列处理所带来的速度提升,光是“先把数据从内存单元中移动到高速的VC中后再由外部进行读写”这一基本构造本身就很适于提高内存的整体速度。每块内存芯片中都可以搭载复数的VC,64Mbit的产品中VC总数为16个。不但每个VC均可以分别对应不同的内存主控设备(MemoryMaster,此处指CPU、南桥芯片、各种扩展卡等等),而且在必要时,还可以把多个VC信道捆绑在一起以对应某个占用带宽特别大的内存主控设备。因此,在多任务同时执行的情况下,VC-SDRAM也能保证持续地进行高效率的数据传输。VC-SDRAM还有一个特点,就是保持了与传统型SDRAM的管脚兼容,厂家不需要重新进行主板布线设计就能够使主板支持它。不过由于它与传统型SDRAM控制方式不同,因此还需要得到控制芯片组的支持方能使用,目前已支持VC-SDRAM的芯片组有VIA的ApolloPro133系列、ApolloMVP4和SiS的SiS630等。
again and again . . 。
反复地,再三地
.
again and again . . 。
.adv.
repeatedly
同义词: over and over | over and over again | time and again | time and time again 。
展开模式 . . 折叠模式 。
again and again : 。
1. 反复地,再三地
. . . [转贴]初中要掌握的词组--青青子矜 ...。
after class 课后 。
again and again 反复地,再三地 。
agree to do sth. 同意做某事 ...。
doudou.headmaster.com.cn - 基于396个网页 。
2. 再三地
. . . [转帖]英语中有趣的“手拉手”结构 ...。
again and again 再三地;反复地。
age to age 代代
all in all 总的来说 ...。
www.tutor121.com - 基于59个网页 。
3. 反复地
. . . [转帖]英语中有趣的“手拉手”结构 ...。
again and again 再三地;反复地。
age to age 代代
all in all 总的来说 ...。
www.tutor121.com - 基于34个网页 。
again and again : 反复地,再三地 | 再三地 | 反复地 。
again and again : 。
1. 反复地,再三地
. ... [转贴]初中要掌握的词组--青青子矜 ...。
after class 课后 。
again and again 反复地,再三地 。
agree to do sth. 同意做某事 ...。
doudou.headmaster.com.cn - 基于396个网页 。
2. 再三地
. ... [转帖]英语中有趣的“手拉手”结构 ...。
again and again 再三地;反复地。
age to age 代代
all in all 总的来说 ...。
www.tutor121.com - 基于59个网页 。
3. 反复地
. ... [转帖]英语中有趣的“手拉手”结构 ...。
again and again 再三地;反复地。
age to age 代代
all in all 总的来说 ...。
www.tutor121.com - 基于34个网页 。
call again and again : (再三)反复叫喊 。
call again and again : (再三)反复叫喊 。
call again and again : (再三)反复叫喊 。
. ... 全册英语词组 Library-全册英语词组 http://www.download100.cn ...。
look for寻找
call again and again (再三)反复叫喊 。
as well as 除…之外 ...。
www.download100.cn - 基于75个网页 。
Urge Again And Again : 叮咛 。
Urge Again And Again : 叮咛 。
Urge Again And Again : 叮咛 。
. ... 周璇经典名曲天涯歌女(周璇之歌2) ...。
Urge Again And Again 叮咛。
The Wandering Singer 天涯歌女。
Spring of The Humble Alley 陋巷之春 ...。
www.btear.org - 基于1个网页 。
Looked again and again : 连连看 。
Looked again and again : 连连看 。
Looked again and again : 连连看 。
. ... QQ宠物连连看(Looked again and again) | 作者:Q宠欢乐谷 2006-9-20 游戏玩法与其他连连看类似,用鼠标左键点击相同的就可以消掉.。
www.yx007.com - 基于3个网页 。
Changed Again and Again : 改变又改变 。
Changed Again and Again : 改变又改变 。
Changed Again and Again : 改变又改变 。
. ... ‖转载‖ 死神漫画全目录 ...。
THE LAST MISSION (最后一个任务)。
Changed Again and Again (改变又改变)。
King of the Kill (杀戮之神) ...。
www.joylaugh.com - 基于30个网页 。
Inquest again and again : 不断追问的习惯 。
Inquest again and again : 不断追问的习惯 。
Inquest again and again : 不断追问的习惯 。
. ... 4.养成不断追问的习惯(Inquest again and again)。 由于法律是在解决社会矛盾的过程中发展起来的,不同的人在不同立场上常常有不同的观点和主张。
www.scsfw.com - 基于3个网页 。
thank sb. again and again : 反复感谢某人 。
thank sb. again and again : 反复感谢某人 。
thank sb. again and again : 反复感谢某人 。
. ... 全册英语词组 Library-全册英语词组 http://www.download100.cn ...。
in front of 在……前面 。
thank sb. again and again 反复感谢某人 。
drive away (汽车)离开 ...。
www.download100.cn - 基于77个网页 。
occurring again and again : 持续的 | 一再发生的 。
occurring again and again : 持续的 | 一再发生的 。
occurring again and again : 。
1. 持续的
. ... glossary of college Engli... ...。
hear of -- be told about or have knowledge of 听说,得知。
persistent -a.- continuing;occurring again and again 持续的;一再发生的。
mingle -v.- mix 混合 ...。
bbs.bikehome.net - 基于1个网页 。
2. 一再发生的
. ... glossary of college Engli... ...。
hear of -- be told about or have knowledge of 听说,得知。
persistent -a.- continuing;occurring again and again 持续的;一再发生的。
mingle -v.- mix 混合 ...。
bbs.bikehome.net - 基于1个网页 。
thank ***. again and again : 反复感谢某人 。
thank ***. again and again : 反复感谢某人 。
thank ***. again and again : 反复感谢某人 。
. ... 【转载】初中必背短语大全 ...。
in front of 在……前面 。
thank ***. again and again 反复感谢某人 。
drive away (汽车)离开 ...。
blogtest.phoenixtv.com - 基于2个网页 。
again and again repeatedly : 再三地 。
again and again repeatedly : 再三地 。
again and again repeatedly : 再三地 。
. ... 日常用语词汇接龙 ...。
再次 again
再一次 again once again once more over again 。
再三地 again and again repeatedly ...。
englishcorner.cc - 基于1个网页 。
相关词组
隐藏相关词组
.
1. He made a promise of help, as I pleaded with him again and again.。
我再三央求,他才答应帮忙。
dict.cn
2. Go to bathroom again and again.。
频频去洗手间。
www.zhewa.cn
3. We can buy again and again.。
交易可以周而复始。
www.iwishicoulddescribeittoyoubetter.org。
The Magna Carta。
(The Great Charter)。
1215
Preamble: John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, and count of Anjou, to the archbishop, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciaries, foresters, sheriffs, stewards, servants, and to all his bailiffs and liege subjects, greetings. Know that, having regard to God and for the salvation of our soul, and those of all our ancestors and heirs, and unto the honor of God and the advancement of his holy Church and for the rectifying of our realm, we have granted as underwritten by advice of our venerable fathers, Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England and cardinal of the holy Roman Church, Henry, archbishop of Dublin, William of London, Peter of Winchester, Jocelyn of Bath and Glastonbury, Hugh of Lincoln, Walter of Worcester, William of Coventry, Benedict of Rochester, bishops; of Master Pandulf, subdeacon and member of the household of our lord the Pope, of brother Aymeric (master of the Knights of the Temple in England), and of the illustrious men William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, William, earl of Salisbury, William, earl of Warenne, William, earl of Arundel, Alan of Galloway (constable of Scotland), Waren Fitz Gerold, Peter Fitz Herbert, Hubert De Burgh (seneschal of Poitou), Hugh de Neville, Matthew Fitz Herbert, Thomas Basset, Alan Basset, Philip d'Aubigny, Robert of Roppesley, John Marshal, John Fitz Hugh, and others, our liegemen.。
1. In the first place we have granted to God, and by this our present charter confirmed for us and our heirs forever that the English Church shall be free, and shall have her rights entire, and her liberties inviolate; and we will that it be thus observed; which is apparent from this that the freedom of elections, which is reckoned most important and very essential to the English Church, we, of our pure and unconstrained will, did grant, and did by our charter confirm and did obtain the ratification of the same from our lord, Pope Innocent III, before the quarrel arose between us and our barons: and this we will observe, and our will is that it be observed in good faith by our heirs forever. We have also granted to all freemen of our kingdom, for us and our heirs forever, all the underwritten liberties, to be had and held by them and their heirs, of us and our heirs forever.。
2. If any of our earls or barons, or others holding of us in chief by military service shall have died, and at the time of his death his heir shall be full of age and owe "relief", he shall have his inheritance by the old relief, to wit, the heir or heirs of an earl, for the whole barony of an earl by £100; the heir or heirs of a baron, £100 for a whole barony; the heir or heirs of a knight, 100s, at most, and whoever owes less let him give less, according to the ancient custom of fees.。
3. If, however, the heir of any one of the aforesaid has been under age and in wardship, let him have his inheritance without relief and without fine when he comes of age.。
4. The guardian of the land of an heir who is thus under age, shall take from the land of the heir nothing but reasonable produce, reasonable customs, and reasonable services, and that without destruction or waste of men or goods; and if we have committed the wardship of the lands of any such minor to the sheriff, or to any other who is responsible to us for its issues, and he has made destruction or waster of what he holds in wardship, we will take of him amends, and the land shall be committed to two lawful and discreet men of that fee, who shall be responsible for the issues to us or to him to whom we shall assign them; and if we have given or sold the wardship of any such land to anyone and he has therein made destruction or waste, he shall lose that wardship, and it shall be transferred to two lawful and discreet men of that fief, who shall be responsible to us in like manner as aforesaid.。
5. The guardian, moreover, so long as he has the wardship of the land, shall keep up the houses, parks, fishponds, stanks, mills, and other things pertaining to the land, out of the issues of the same land; and he shall restore to the heir, when he has come to full age, all his land, stocked with ploughs and wainage, according as the season of husbandry shall require, and the issues of the land can reasonable bear.。
6. Heirs shall be married without disparagement, yet so that before the marriage takes place the nearest in blood to that heir shall have notice.。
7. A widow, after the death of her husband, shall forthwith and without difficulty have her marriage portion and inheritance; nor shall she give anything for her dower, or for her marriage portion, or for the inheritance which her husband and she held on the day of the death of that husband; and she may remain in the house of her husband for forty days after his death, within which time her dower shall be assigned to her.。
8. No widow shall be compelled to marry, so long as she prefers to live without a husband; provided always that she gives security not to marry without our consent, if she holds of us, or without the consent of the lord of whom she holds, if she holds of another.。
9. Neither we nor our bailiffs will seize any land or rent for any debt, as long as the chattels of the debtor are sufficient to repay the debt; nor shall the sureties of the debtor be distrained so long as the principal debtor is able to satisfy the debt; and if the principal debtor shall fail to pay the debt, having nothing wherewith to pay it, then the sureties shall answer for the debt; and let them have the lands and rents of the debtor, if they desire them, until they are indemnified for the debt which they have paid for him, unless the principal debtor can show proof that he is discharged thereof as against the said sureties.。
10. If one who has borrowed from the Jews any sum, great or small, die before that loan be repaid, the debt shall not bear interest while the heir is under age, of whomsoever he may hold; and if the debt fall into our hands, we will not take anything except the principal sum contained in the bond.。
11. And if anyone die indebted to the Jews, his wife shall have her dower and pay nothing of that debt; and if any children of the deceased are left under age, necessaries shall be provided for them in keeping with the holding of the deceased; and out of the residue the debt shall be paid, reserving, however, service due to feudal lords; in like manner let it be done touching debts due to others than Jews.。
12. No scutage not aid shall be imposed on our kingdom, unless by common counsel of our kingdom, except for ransoming our person, for making our eldest son a knight, and for once marrying our eldest daughter; and for these there shall not be levied more than a reasonable aid. In like manner it shall be done concerning aids from the city of London.。
13. And the city of London shall have all it ancient liberties and free customs, as well by land as by water; furthermore, we decree and grant that all other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports shall have all their liberties and free customs.。
14. And for obtaining the common counsel of the kingdom anent the assessing of an aid (except in the three cases aforesaid) or of a scutage, we will cause to be summoned the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons, severally by our letters; and we will moveover cause to be summoned generally, through our sheriffs and bailiffs, and others who hold of us in chief, for a fixed date, namely, after the expiry of at least forty days, and at a fixed place; and in all letters of such summons we will specify the reason of the summons. And when the summons has thus been made, the business shall proceed on the day appointed, according to the counsel of such as are present, although not all who were summoned have come.。
15. We will not for the future grant to anyone license to take an aid from his own free tenants, except to ransom his person, to make his eldest son a knight, and once to marry his eldest daughter; and on each of these occasions there shall be levied only a reasonable aid.。
16. No one shall be distrained for performance of greater service for a knight's fee, or for any other free tenement, than is due therefrom.。
17. Common pleas shall not follow our court, but shall be held in some fixed place.。
18. Inquests of novel disseisin, of mort d'ancestor, and of darrein presentment shall not be held elsewhere than in their own county courts, and that in manner following; We, or, if we should be out of the realm, our chief justiciar, will send two justiciaries through every county four times a year, who shall alone with four knights of the county chosen by the county, hold the said assizes in the county court, on the day and in the place of meeting of that court.。
19. And if any of the said assizes cannot be taken on the day of the county court, let there remain of the knights and freeholders, who were present at the county court on that day, as many as may be required for the efficient making of judgments, according as the business be more or less.。
20. A freeman shall not be amerced for a slight offense, except in accordance with the degree of the offense; and for a grave offense he shall be amerced in accordance with the gravity of the offense, yet saving always his "contentment"; and a merchant in the same way, saving his "merchandise"; and a villein shall be amerced in the same way, saving his "wainage" if they have fallen into our mercy: and none of the aforesaid amercements shall be imposed except by the oath of honest men of the neighborhood.。
21. Earls and barons shall not be amerced except through their peers, and only in accordance with the degree of the offense.。
22. A clerk shall not be amerced in respect of his lay holding except after the manner of the others aforesaid; further, he shall not be amerced in accordance with the extent of his ecclesiastical benefice.。
23. No village or individual shall be compelled to make bridges at river banks, except those who from of old were legally bound to do so.。
24. No sheriff, constable, coroners, or others of our bailiffs, shall hold pleas of our Crown.。
25. All counties, hundred, wapentakes, and trithings (except our demesne manors) shall remain at the old rents, and without any additional payment.。
26. If anyone holding of us a lay fief shall die, and our sheriff or bailiff shall exhibit our letters patent of summons for a debt which the deceased owed us, it shall be lawful for our sheriff or bailiff to attach and enroll the chattels of the deceased, found upon the lay fief, to the value of that debt, at the sight of law worthy men, provided always that nothing whatever be thence removed until the debt which is evident shall be fully paid to us; and the residue shall be left to the executors to fulfill the will of the deceased; and if there be nothing due from him to us, all the chattels shall go to the deceased, saving to his wife and children their reasonable shares.。
27. If any freeman shall die intestate, his chattels shall be distributed by the hands of his nearest kinsfolk and friends, under supervision of the Church, saving to every one the debts which the deceased owed to him.。
28. No constable or other bailiff of ours shall take corn or other provisions from anyone without immediately tendering money therefor, unless he can have postponement thereof by permission of the seller.。
29. No constable shall compel any knight to give money in lieu of castle-guard, when he is willing to perform it in his own person, or (if he himself cannot do it from any reasonable cause) then by another responsible man. Further, if we have led or sent him upon military service, he shall be relieved from guard in proportion to the time during which he has been on service because of us.。
30. No sheriff or bailiff of ours, or other person, shall take the horses or carts of any freeman for transport duty, against the will of the said freeman.。
31. Neither we nor our bailiffs shall take, for our castles or for any other work of ours, wood which is not ours, against the will of the owner of that wood.。
32. We will not retain beyond one year and one day, the lands those who have been convicted of felony, and the lands shall thereafter be handed over to the lords of the fiefs.。
33. All kydells for the future shall be removed altogether from Thames and Medway, and throughout all England, except upon the seashore.。
34. The writ which is called praecipe shall not for the future be issued to anyone, regarding any tenement whereby a freeman may lose his court.。
35. Let there be one measure of wine throughout our whole realm; and one measure of ale; and one measure of corn, to wit, "the London quarter"; and one width of cloth (whether dyed, or russet, or "halberget"), to wit, two ells within the selvedges; of weights also let it be as of measures.。
36. Nothing in future shall be given or taken for a writ of inquisition of life or limbs, but freely it shall be granted, and never denied.。
37. If anyone holds of us by fee-farm, either by socage or by burage, or of any other land by knight's service, we will not (by reason of that fee-farm, socage, or burgage), have the wardship of the heir, or of such land of his as if of the fief of that other; nor shall we have wardship of that fee-farm, socage, or burgage, unless such fee-farm owes knight's service. We will not by reason of any small serjeancy which anyone may hold of us by the service of rendering to us knives, arrows, or the like, have wardship of his heir or of the land which he holds of another lord by knight's service.。
38. No bailiff for the future shall, upon his own unsupported complaint, put anyone to his "law", without credible witnesses brought for this purposes.。
39. No freemen shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised or exiled or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him nor send upon him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land.。
40. To no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay, right or justice.。
41. All merchants shall have safe and secure exit from England, and entry to England, with the right to tarry there and to move about as well by land as by water, for buying and selling by the ancient and right customs, quit from all evil tolls, except (in time of war) such merchants as are of the land at war with us. And if such are found in our land at the beginning of the war, they shall be detained, without injury to their bodies or goods, until information be received by us, or by our chief justiciar, how the merchants of our land found in the land at war with us are treated; and if our men are safe there, the others shall be safe in our land.。
42. It shall be lawful in future for anyone (excepting always those imprisoned or outlawed in accordance with the law of the kingdom, and natives of any country at war with us, and merchants, who shall be treated as if above provided) to leave our kingdom and to return, safe and secure by land and water, except for a short period in time of war, on grounds of public policy- reserving always the allegiance due to us.。
43. If anyone holding of some escheat (such as the honor of Wallingford, Nottingham, Boulogne, Lancaster, or of other escheats which are in our hands and are baronies) shall die, his heir shall give no other relief, and perform no other service to us than he would have done to the baron if that barony had been in the baron's hand; and we shall hold it in the same manner in which the baron held it.。
44. Men who dwell without the forest need not henceforth come before our justiciaries of the forest upon a general summons, unless they are in plea, or sureties of one or more, who are attached for the forest.。
45. We will appoint as justices, constables, sheriffs, or bailiffs only such as know the law of the realm and mean to observe it well.。
46. All barons who have founded abbeys, concerning which they hold charters from the kings of England, or of which they have long continued possession, shall have the wardship of them, when vacant, as they ought to have.。
47. All forests that have been made such in our time shall forthwith be disafforsted; and a similar course shall be followed with regard to river banks that have been placed "in defense" by us in our time.。
48. All evil customs connected with forests and warrens, foresters and warreners, sheriffs and their officers, river banks and their wardens, shall immediately by inquired into in each county by twelve sworn knights of the same county chosen by the honest men of the same county, and shall, within forty days of the said inquest, be utterly abolished, so as never to be restored, provided always that we previously have intimation thereof, or our justiciar, if we should not be in England.。
49. We will immediately restore all hostages and charters delivered to us by Englishmen, as sureties of the peace of faithful service.。
50. We will entirely remove from their bailiwicks, the relations of Gerard of Athee (so that in future they shall have no bailiwick in England); namely, Engelard of Cigogne, Peter, Guy, and Andrew of Chanceaux, Guy of Cigogne, Geoffrey of Martigny with his brothers, Philip Mark with his brothers and his nephew Geoffrey, and the whole brood of the same.。
51. As soon as peace is restored, we will banish from the kingdom all foreign born knights, crossbowmen, serjeants, and mercenary soldiers who have come with horses and arms to the kingdom's hurt.。
52. If anyone has been dispossessed or removed by us, without the legal judgment of his peers, from his lands, castles, franchises, or from his right, we will immediately restore them to him; and if a dispute arise over this, then let it be decided by the five and twenty barons of whom mention is made below in the clause for securing the peace. Moreover, for all those possessions, from which anyone has, without the lawful judgment of his peers, been disseised or removed, by our father, King Henry, or by our brother, King Richard, and which we retain in our hand (or which as possessed by others, to whom we are bound to warrant them) we shall have respite until the usual term of crusaders; excepting those things about which a plea has been raised, or an inquest made by our order, before our taking of the cross; but as soon as we return from the expedition, we will immediately grant full justice therein.。
53. We shall have, moreover, the same respite and in the same manner in rendering justice concerning the disafforestation or retention of those forests which Henry our father and Richard our broter afforested, and concerning the wardship of lands which are of the fief of another (namely, such wardships as we have hitherto had by reason of a fief which anyone held of us by knight's service), and concerning abbeys founded on other fiefs than our own, in which the lord of the fee claims to have right; and when we have returned, or if we desist from our expedition, we will immediately grant full justice to all who complain of such things.。
54. No one shall be arrested or imprisoned upon the appeal of a woman, for the death of any other than her husband.。
55. All fines made with us unjustly and against the law of the land, and all amercements, imposed unjustly and against the law of the land, shall be entirely remitted, or else it shall be done concerning them according to the decision of the five and twenty barons whom mention is made below in the clause for securing the pease, or according to the judgment of the majority of the same, along with the aforesaid Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, if he can be present, and such others as he may wish to bring with him for this purpose, and if he cannot be present the business shall nevertheless proceed without him, provided。
英国陪审制度的起源问题似乎相当模糊,研究者的意见分歧较大,有的追溯其源于盎格鲁——撒克森时期的类似做法,有的倾向于认为它是由诺曼输入。我们确实可以在盎格鲁——撒克森国王埃塞尔雷德(Ethelred)的法律中找到这样的规定:“在每个百家村(wapentake)的集会上,得由十二个年长的乡绅及邑长(reeve)一起手持圣物宣誓,不起诉无辜者,不隐匿罪恶者。”[4]这的确很象后来的起诉陪审团。另外,十世纪早期,法兰克王国的教会法院偶尔也有过将某人有罪或无罪的问题交给十二人组成的民众团体裁决的作法,而英国的教会于Dunstan和Oswald时期也曾借用过法兰克教会的这种作法。[5]尽管如此,由于它们都不具有固定性,而更多地带有偶然作法的性质,因而大部分研究学者(包括权威学者)仍倾向于认为严格意义上的陪审团是诺曼征服后由威廉一世从法兰克的诺曼底公国引进来的,而上述类似作法充其量不过是为陪审团制度的引入准备了一些有利条件而已。[6] 。
据记载,至少从公元8世纪起,法兰克皇帝和国王就曾经传唤邻居调查陪审团(Inquest或 Inquisitio),让他们回答一位巡回王室官员提出的问题——主要是关于当地习惯所确认的王室权利和违反王室命令的问题。史料表明,这种邻居调查陪审团在当时主要是为恢复王室土地之权利而采用的。由于当时王室土地时常为私人所占据,国王为清查土地占有状况,而命王室官员赴各地探求事实,以恢复王室土地之权利。为了有效地获取证据和事实,王室采用了邻居调查团作为推问方式。后来国王将这种推问方式(邻居调查团)扩及于有关民人身份租税调查等方面。[7]法兰克国王的这种邻居调查团之推问方式初独为国王特权,国王凭借这种推问方式有效地维护和伸张王室的权利,[8]地方封建权威(如封建领主)[9]断不能使用。因而,这种调查陪审团实际上是当时国王面对众多封建地方割据势力而采用的用以伸张王室权利的手段。同时显然,这种邻居调查陪审团仅是提供证据实情的证人,而非现代意义上的陪审团。[10] 。
后来从北方来的诺曼人从法兰克人手中接过了这种办法,也使用邻居调查陪审团。[11]但是,诺曼人具有非常强的行政管理能力,他们将调查陪审团的使用范围加以扩大,把它作为政府管理的一般方式来运用,中央政府派往地方的王室官吏向当地人调查时,可召集调查陪审团,后者要发誓如实提供有关情况。不管是行政官吏或司法官吏都可以采用这种调查陪审团来获取有关信息资料,[12]比如行政官吏向其询问土地占有以及财产等经济或其他方面的问题,司法官吏责令其提出犯罪嫌疑人或就犯罪指控是否真实发表意见等。通过这样的作法加强了中央王权对全国的控制与管理,不久,诺曼底公国便确立起了一套中央机构体系。[13]可以说,这种调查陪审团事实上也是诺曼王室面对封建状况而努力确立其体系化的官僚管理机构的一种手段,是中央王权向地方封建势力进行权力盘剥(中性)的一种有效方式,如同法兰克王室所作的那样。
诺曼统治者将调查陪审团作为政府管理的一般方式的这样一种作法,在诺曼底公爵威廉一世征服英格兰后不久,便被引入英格兰的实践,最著名的就是1086年的《末日审判书》对征税人口的调查统计。[14]在这次全国性的”摸底”调查中,王室官吏广泛地采用了十二人邻居调查陪审团,调查陪审团必须如实回答王室官吏提出的问题,否则要受罚。这种邻居调查陪审团能够快速有效地给王室官吏提供其所需要的详实信息,因而邻居调查陪审团对威廉如期完成他的调查计划起到了难以估量的重要作用。《末日审判书》肯定了威廉征服英格兰后对土地的占有,剥夺了广大农民的权利,对英格兰的集权起到了十分重要的作用。[15]毫不夸张地说,这一次由从地方民众中召集的十二人调查陪审团又在王室为自己攫取权力的艰难路途中扮演了”开路先锋”的尴尬角色。并且我们可以看到这种调查陪审团在性质上仍是团体证人。当然,如前文所交代,威廉及其后来者在王室的各项行政事务中广泛地采用了这种团体证人,因为凭借它来获取王室行政所需的各种信息是如此地有效,王室行政因此富有效率。并且王室通过派遣巡回法官(justices in Eyre)在地方上召集这种调查陪审团来查问有关地方官员有无违犯王室的不轨行为,借以控制、监管地方的行政与司法活动。陪审团对英王室的重要意义由此可见。直至14世纪,由于有地方各郡代表参加的议会的出现,使得国王无需派官员四处奔跑,即能在议会上获取其所需的全国各地之信息;加之兼负行政职责的巡回法官(justices in Eyre)越来越不受民众欢迎,应公众的强烈要求很快被司专职审判的巡回法官(justices of assize)所取代;[16]并且王室的专业化、规范化运作的官僚机构体系在全国也已基本建立,原来的取证方式(调查陪审团)也多少有些难以适应这种专业化及规范化运作的需要,故而,在14世纪王室行政事务中的调查陪审团逐渐地衰微,调查陪审团演变为主要与司法审判相关了。
当然,调查陪审团并非直到14世纪才被引入司法审判。如前所述,诺曼征服后的英王室一开始从诺曼底引进十二人调查陪审团就是为了在政府管理中广泛地加以运用的。但是史料表明,直到亨利二世,调查陪审团才被固定地应用于英格兰的司法审判中。[17]之前,司法审判中运用陪审团(jury)的事例较少,据记载亨利二世之父安茹公爵杰佛里曾在重要的民事案件中采用过陪审团。可以肯定的是亨利二世对于十二人陪审团绝对不会陌生,无论是在行政事务中,还是在司法审判中。但是,在亨利二世之前,王室的司法权一直是非正式的,司法权几全操于地方封建势力手中,王室干预地方司法被认为是违反自然法则的、不可容忍的。[18]这严重阻碍了王室集权。并且“司法中有大钱”(英格兰格言),司法能带来丰厚的经济收入。因此,无论从政治上谋略,还是出于经济上的考虑,司法权对于英王室无疑都具有非同寻常的意义。亨利二世在英国历史上是个了不起的具有雄才大略的国王,为了盘剥地方封建司法权,伸张王室司法权 ,他对传统的“令状”进行了微妙而又是根本性的变革——即将令状“司法化”。
令状(writ)初为征服者威廉和他的后继者统治英格兰时,王室对全国进行行政管理的主要手段之一。令状由王室颁发,命令封建领主和郡长等纠正处理那些引起国王注意的不法行为(有碍国王安宁的行为)。这些令状种类较多,每一种都设计用来解决国王所干预的个案。因此,这些令状实际上是国王向地方渗权的有力工具。由于这些令状负载着国王向地方下达的行政命令,收到令状的封建领主必须着手处理令状所指向的引起国王注意的不法行为。因此,这个时候的令状是行政化的。但是亨利二世为了更深入地插手地方事务,伸张王室司法权,他将原行政令状予以“司法化”——令状不再单纯地命令地方封建领主如何如何做,而是命令其将不法行为所涉之当事人传唤到王室派遣的法官面前进行诉讼,由王室法官着手审理裁决案件。这样就使得对不法行为的最终处理权事实上转移到了王室手中。这是一种王室对地方权力的绝妙篡夺。也正因此,国王的每个令状就引起一起诉讼,而不再是一种单纯的行政命令,在这个意义上说,国王的令状“司法化”了。这种司法化的令状所带来的明显后果是王室的司法权得以伸张,拿到司法令状的纠纷(是民事纠纷,刑事案件通过重罪上诉或大陪审团提起,不通过司法令状提起)当事人只能到王室的法官面前进行诉讼。
为了改革的有效性,他还把调查陪审团与他的‘司法化’的令状制度结合起来。这样,每一类根据国王的司法令状可由王室法院或法官管辖的民事案件,均得采用十二人陪审团审,以询问陪审团作为取证方法,而不得适用宣誓断讼法或神裁法等原始的取证手段,由此全体公众可以在王室管辖范围内的特定类型的民事案件(主要涉及土地诉讼)中将调查陪审团作为正规的制度予以运用。同时,亨利二世还辅之以王室定期地往地方派遣巡回法官(justices in Eyre)制度。这样亨利二世就确定了王室对颁发令状和对陪审诉 。
讼的专有管辖权,使王室司法权获得正当性。[19]由此,王室法官主持的特定类型的民事案件中,使用十二人陪审团来审理案件[20]成为制度性作法。
从根本上讲,这些在王室司法中的陪审团与在王室行政事务中的陪审团在性质上并无多大区别,它们同样只是团体证人。这些王室司法中的十二人陪审团同样是从案件发生地的周围邻居中召集的,他们唯一职责是要如实地回答法官提出的有关案件真实情况的问题。但是,由于他们一般知悉案情,并且事先已经知道法官将会对他们提出什么问题,他们回答问题无需经过审判中询问普通证人的烦琐过程,法官一般直接根据陪审团的回答来对案件作出裁决,不考虑也不允许提出其它证据[21],因而它使得数量很少的王室法官(一共不超过三十名)就能处理全国所有的司法事务。并且,由于采用询问十二人邻居陪审团作为取证方式来对案件进行裁决显然比地方法院通过宣誓、神裁及决斗等非理性的取证手段来裁决案件更具合理性,因而王室法官主持的有陪审团参加的法庭在政治上更受民众欢迎。另外,由于召集的十二人往往代表了其所在的村社共同体的意志,而村社共同体的意志在当时对诉讼当事人而言无疑是一种威权,故而陪审团提供的有关意见也更容易为当事人所尊重,而这显然有利于树立王室司法的威望。陪审团在王室司法中所具有的所有这些优点,都有利于王室的司法权向地方和封建的司法权渗透。后来随着审判技术的发展以及客观形势的需要,王室新的令状被不断地创造出来[22],这同时意味着陪审团在司法中的适用不断地“蔓延”,更直接地说就是王室的司法权不断地得以扩张,由王室法官主持的审判一步一步地排挤掉了地方封建司法权。由于从13世纪中后期始,王室司法机关逐渐专职化,王室法官专业化,因而整个王室司法开始专业化。而地方封建法庭的运作一直是非专业化的,多少带有民众团体司法的性质。[23]这种专业化的王室司法排挤或取代非专业化的地方封建法庭的一个重要结果便是专业化的法律体系——普通法逐渐形成。普通法的形成大大地改观了原先整个国家法律多元、分散甚至相互矛盾的法制局面,为国王统一管理国家,实现集权奠定了最重要的基础。无论如何,我们可以说,王室将陪审团引入司法是为了干涉地方司法权,扩张王室司法权;也正因此陪审团在英格兰得以迅速发展。对此,英国法律史研究专家HOLDSWORTH更为直接指出,陪审团是英王室向地方渗权的最为重要的工具之一。[24] 。
需加说明的是,亨利二世起初只是将陪审团适用于民事诉讼,但是没过多久(两年后),他出于同样的原因(加强王室对全国的管理与控制)将陪审团引入了刑事诉讼。正如历史一贯表明的那样,由于早期国家观念的淡薄,对犯罪的控诉权基本上操于私人之手。这种由私人追诉犯罪的习惯在当时的英国就是表现为“重罪上诉” (appeal of felony)。重罪上诉(非今日意义上的上诉)制度赋予受害人的男性亲属以及领主或封臣有对重罪(轻微的“犯罪”可能根本不被视为犯罪,不过是一般侵权而已)提起控诉的权利,并且对重罪上诉的管辖权操于地方法院。但是,由于到了亨利二世时期,王室对全国实行控制的愿望和实际能力都在加强,重罪越来越被视为是对国王安宁和国家安全的严重破坏,而同时重罪上诉对犯罪的控制与打击力度又是如此地有限(私人之间往往私了或出于害怕败诉而不敢起诉),自然而然,亨利二世急切地希望找到治罪的其他良方妙药。最后,亨利二世所想到的还是他所熟悉的陪审团,这种陪审团要向王室巡回法官宣誓检举重罪。这就是起诉陪审团(大陪审团)的产生。这种起诉陪审团由王室巡回法官从百户区中召集产生,巡回官员向被召集的陪审团询问是否有犯罪发生,嫌疑人是谁,陪审团必须如实地向巡回官员检举,否则要受到重罚,而那些被检举的嫌疑犯就会作为被告在王室法庭上或者说巡回法官面前受到“水审”。据研究,通过这种办法使得少数几个法官就能在几天内处理数以百计的案件。用英国法律史研究专家道森(DAWSON)的话说,采用陪审团的办法是“极其有效的一项伟大的创举”,“它几乎使得地方特权不能得到保障”,[25]王权由此深入地方内部。1215年封建贵族愤愤不平地逼迫约翰王签署《大宪章》(Magna Charta)就是这种王权过度侵夺封建地方权力的体现。[26]要说明的是,起初亨利二世只是使用大陪审团来“起诉”犯罪,而并没有将陪审团扩展到刑事审判,被检举的被告仍接受神明裁判——水审。但是,后来由于13世纪时人类理性逐渐抬头,教会法学家开始倡导理性与良心原则,教皇英诺森三世审时度势,于1215年召开第四次拉特兰宗教会议,会上废止了通行西方基督教世界的神明裁判。由此迫使世俗当局在审理刑事案件时采用新的审判程序。在这样的历史背景下,英国王室便将审判陪审团引入刑事审判。[27]这就是刑事小陪审团的产生。
然而,国王为了尽可能地打击国内犯罪行为、维持王国秩序,他要控制整个刑事审判。于是,国王挖空心思要控制小陪审团或审判陪审团,以使小陪审团尽量循着国王的意志运作。起初,他的办法就是让起诉陪审团的一部分成员进入小陪审团,并构成小陪审团成员的大部分。说得更明白些就是,国王从起诉陪审团中挑出他所信赖的一部分成员(这些成员构成小陪审团的大部分),然后再点缀性地从外面加入几个陪审员,共同组成了小陪审团。显然,这样的小陪审团一般都会说被告人有罪,因为其中的大部分陪审员原先就是检举被告的人,更为重要的是起诉陪审团的成员若在法庭审判中(作为小陪审团成员)“裁定”被告无罪,就会受到重罚,因为国王规定一个陪审员不能作互相矛盾“裁定”。[28]人们对国王的这种做法一直心怀不满,因为这会明显地导致审判不公。后来民众的不满情绪日盛,国王不得已于1351—1352年下令允许被告对小陪审团的成员提出反对或回避,自然那些曾参与起诉陪审团的成员一般就会遭到反对,从而被“淘汰出局”。由此,渐渐地,大小陪审团界限开始明晰,并终于在后来完全分离。但是,国王仍绞尽脑汁力图控制小陪审团,比如陪审员要由王室官吏挑选;在很长时间里(约至17世纪中期)不准被告在陪审团面前提出其它证据或证人;甚至在更长的时间里,不准被告获得法律顾问的帮助;陪审团若作出了错误的有罪裁定,则关系不大,不会被追究责任,被告对错误的有罪判决也没有正规的可救济的途径(对刑事陪审团的错误裁定提供新一轮的审判直到17世纪才被允许,在民事审判中14世纪已被许可),但是若陪审团作出了无罪裁定,开释被告,即使是正确的裁定,陪审团定要受到国王的严厉处罚,甚至被投入监狱。[29]国王正是这样通过种种办法来控制刑事陪审团(这种严厉的控制当然也同样见诸于民事陪审团),使其服务于国王打击犯罪、控制全国的政治目的。无庸多言,刑事陪审团也同样不过是王室实现、维持其中央集权的工具而已。也正因为如此,许多刑事被告人拒绝接受陪审团审,因为在陪审团审中难有公正可以得到保障,但是国王通过种种酷刑来逼迫被告接受陪审团审(直到18世纪,被告人不申请陪审团审本身即被视为犯罪)。[30] 。
对此,MAITLAND直言道,陪审团(刑事与民事)之所以能在英国得以迅速地蔓延与扩张且得以稳固,根本上是出于英王室实现其中央集权的深切的政治需要。[31] 。
至此,纵观陪审团在历史上的产生与发展,我们所能清晰看到的是这样一种事实:陪审团一直是作为奉诏履行义务,向王室提供其所需要的相关证言的民众团体证人,它们是王室向地方攫取权力、力图实现其中央集权、控制全国秩序的有效工具;并且也正是因为如此,陪审团才得以在英格兰非常迅速地扩展蔓延并立稳脚跟。
换言之,作为证人的陪审团,其产生与发展的根本动因绝非出于民众的需要,恰恰是出于在某种程度上民众所反感的王权集权的急切需要,基本上非出于司法公正之考虑,而是出于政治斗争之目的。我想说,在根本上仅此而已。恰如MAITLAND所言:被视为“人民自由之堡垒”的陪审团恰恰起源于法兰克,而非英格兰;是出于王室,而非民众。