incorruptibility

请高手翻译一小段 On Incorruptibility

五常：仁义礼智信

仁：benevolence

义：righteousness。

礼：propriety，ritual，rite。

智：wisdom，wit

信：fidelity

五德：温良恭俭让

温：benign

良：upright

恭：courteous

俭：temperate

让：complaisant

五行：忠孝廉耻勇

忠：faithfulness

孝：filial piety，filialness。

廉：incorruptibility。

耻：shame 字面意思是shame，但是应该更多是知耻，introspection，self-examination。

勇：courage

古文中的义、节、廉英语如何翻译？

论廉洁

1，廉洁的声誉是我们统治国家的最强大的优势。

2，在我认识的所有人中，几乎很少有人能够廉洁，对廉洁的官员，我们把他们与神灵的圣人一视同仁。没有这些廉洁的官员，我们就不能把国家凝聚在一起，同时这个国家也不值得我们为之受苦受累。

3，一个在俄国特权体制下工作了很长时间的商人告诉我，现在不可能去贿赂俄国的委员或是其他高级官员了。

4，这是一个巨大的进步，因为在沙皇独裁统治时期，我们（官员）就意味着可以好好收受贿赂，得到我们想要得东西。但现在，在贿赂的猜疑之下，两个政党都收手不再收受贿赂了。

5，这是一个强有力的方法去交给大家我们不知何故而顺利学到的东西，我们很少意识到我们学到的教训，也很少意识到我们需要这些教训。

6，诚然，我们需要这些教训。

7，变化是巨大的。我想这可能要追溯到一种潜意识的荣誉感，不知何故它已经潜移默化在我们官员的思想中。

请帮忙翻译一下 非常感谢！

信义 fealty

1.fidelity; good faith; honesty ; faith; fealty 。

气节 integrity

1.integrity; moral courage; righteousness; moral integrity 。

廉洁 incorruptibility。

[拼音]：lián jié 。

[解释]：1.honest; incorruptible 2.incorruptibility; probity 3.with clean hands ; (adj) honest; incorruption 。

[参考词典]：汉英综合科技大辞典 汉英综合大词典。

求普朗克的英文介绍

德育在亚洲重新兴起了一股相当大的热潮，特别是无人可比的中国在政府主导下，修改课程、设计新教材和教师培训计划等都在同步推动中。这其中有些因为基本矛盾衍生出来的悬念，因为在共产党政治目标下属意的公民德育着重于民族主义、爱国主义、社会和中国传统的固有价值观，很明显地这和社会经济政策中潜在的个人主义、资本主义以及年轻人（包括一些已经不怎么年轻的）族群对西方价值观的追捧是相抵触的。

教师们就深陷于这种两面为难的尴尬处境：在政府的政策要求下他们必须大力倡导维护国家整体利益，而学生们却正背道而驰，在经济开放后的物质成果中追求更多结社、行动和言论上的自由。由社会经济改革衍生出的现象随处可见。伴随资本主义而来的金融机构充斥其间 - 储备银行、证券交易市场、保险公司、国营企业等等都是；政府在许多行业中逐步放开对企业的掌控和扶持，由公有转私有的体制改革；过往政权对社会财富重新分配的机制正快速地被取代，在资本主义式的个人财富积累和物欲横流中，极富（不断增加的“百万元户”）和极贫之间的差距不断拉开，中产阶级也在日益壮大。

这种社会经济上的落差对于中国的道德结构和年轻人的道德教育造成影响。比如德育课程以创建和谐社会为政治目标高举着“和谐”大旗(Zhang,Li,Zhing&Lin,2007)，而学生们即便对传统道德观念中诸如孝顺、诚实、守信、忠诚、爱国、正义、公平和负责等价值多少还能给予些重视，对于节俭、廉洁、公共事务、忍让、合作、尽职、自我克制这些理念比较不易认同，而更加倾心于浪费、耍酷、独身主义、同性恋、安乐死和离婚这类行为(Yang&Wan,2007)。

这些通过实证得出的结果开始在中国日新月异的生活特色中占一席地，也指陈了将社会公义融入德育课程中的必要。在此考量下，我所要探讨的题目是：要被认定为一个有品德的人，社会公义是不是一个必备条件？在提出答案时我将从下面三个方向着手：第一，指出社会公义的本质和它对人类团体生活的重要性。第二，讲述何谓“有德之人”以及为何具备社会公义是“有德之人”的必要条件。

注： 希望借此会让您对“百度知道”一些专业团队的答题态度和质量生出点信心。

【高尚】的英文怎么拼？

Max Planck

born April 23, 1858, Kiel, Schleswig [Germany]。

died Oct. 4, 1947, Göttingen, W.Ger.。

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck theoretical physicist who originated quantum theory, which won him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918. 。

Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame rests primarily on his role as originator of the quantum theory. This theory revolutionized our understanding of atomic and subatomic processes, just as Albert Einstein's theory of relativity revolutionized our understanding of space and time. Together they constitute the fundamental theories of 20th-century physics. Both have forced man to revise some of his most cherished philosophical beliefs, and both have led to industrial and military applications that affect every aspect of modern life.。

Early life

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was the sixth child of a distinguished jurist and professor of law at the University of Kiel. The long family tradition of devotion to church and state, excellence in scholarship, incorruptibility, conservatism, idealism, reliability, and generosity became deeply ingrained in Planck's own life and work. When Planck was nine years old, his father received an appointment at the University of Munich, and Planck entered the city's renowned Maximilian Gymnasium, where a teacher, Hermann Müller, stimulated his interest in physics and mathematics. But Planck excelled in all subjects, and after graduation at age 17 he faced a difficult career decision. He ultimately chose physics over classical philology or music because he had dispassionately reached the conclusion that it was in physics that his greatest originality lay. Music, nonetheless, remained an integral part of his life. He possessed the gift of absolute pitch and was an excellent pianist who daily found serenity and delight at the keyboard, enjoying especially the works of Schubert and Brahms. He also loved the outdoors, taking long walks each day and hiking and climbing in the mountains on vacations, even in advanced old age. 。

Planck entered the University of Munich in the fall of 1874 but found little encouragement there from physics professor Philipp von Jolly. During a year spent at the University of Berlin (1877–78), he was unimpressed by the lectures of Hermann von Helmholtz and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, despite their eminence as research scientists. His intellectual capacities were, however, brought to a focus as the result of his independent study, especially of Rudolf Clausius' writings on thermodynamics. Returning to Munich, he received his doctoral degree in July 1879 (the year of Einstein's birth) at the unusually young age of 21. The following year he completed his Habilitationsschrift (qualifying dissertation) at Munich and became a Privatdozent (lecturer). In 1885, with the help of his father's professional connections, he was appointed ausserordentlicher Professor (associate professor) at the University of Kiel. In 1889, after the death of Kirchhoff, Planck received an appointment to the University of Berlin, where he came to venerate Helmholtz as a mentor and colleague. In 1892 he was promoted to ordentlicher Professor (full professor). He had only nine doctoral students altogether, but his Berlin lectures on all branches of theoretical physics went through many editions and exerted great influence. He remained in Berlin for the rest of his active life. 。

Planck recalled that his “original decision to devote myself to science was a direct result of the discovery . . . that the laws of human reasoning coincide with the laws governing the sequences of the impressions we receive from the world about us; that, therefore, pure reasoning can enable man to gain an insight into the mechanism of the [world]. . . .” He deliberately decided, in other words, to become a theoretical physicist at a time when theoretical physics was not yet recognized as a discipline in its own right. But he went further: he concluded that the existence of physical laws presupposes that the “outside world is something independent from man, something absolute, and the quest for the laws which apply to this absolute appeared . . . as the most sublime scientific pursuit in life.”

The first instance of an absolute in nature that impressed Planck deeply, even as a Gymnasium student, was the law of the conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics. Later, during his university years, he became equally convinced that the entropy law, the second law of thermodynamics, was also an absolute law of nature. The second law became the subject of his doctoral dissertation at Munich, and it lay at the core of the researches that led him to discover the quantum of action, now known as Planck's constant h, in 1900. 。

In 1859–60 Kirchhoff had defined a blackbody as an object that reemits all of the radiant energy incident upon it; i.e., it is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. There was, therefore, something absolute about blackbody radiation, and by the 1890s various experimental and theoretical attempts had been made to determine its spectral energy distribution—the curve displaying how much radiant energy is emitted at different frequencies for a given temperature of the blackbody. Planck was particularly attracted to the formula found in 1896 by his colleague Wilhelm Wien at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (PTR) in Berlin-Charlottenburg, and he subsequently made a series of attempts to derive “Wien's law” on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. By October 1900, however, other colleagues at the PTR, the experimentalists Otto Richard Lummer, Ernst Pringsheim, Heinrich Rubens, and Ferdinand Kurlbaum, had found definite indications that Wien's law, while valid at high frequencies, broke down completely at low frequencies. 。

Planck learned of these results just before a meeting of the German Physical Society on October 19. He knew how the entropy of the radiation had to depend mathematically upon its energy in the high-frequency region if Wien's law held there. He also saw what this dependence had to be in the low-frequency region in order to reproduce the experimental results there. Planck guessed, therefore, that he should try to combine these two expressions in the simplest way possible, and to transform the result into a formula relating the energy of the radiation to its frequency. 。

The result, which is known as Planck's radiation law, was hailed as indisputably correct. To Planck, however, it was simply a guess, a “lucky intuition.” If it was to be taken seriously, it had to be derived somehow from first principles. That was the task to which Planck immediately directed his energies, and by December 14, 1900, he had succeeded—but at great cost. To achieve his goal, Planck found that he had to relinquish one of his own most cherished beliefs, that the second law of thermodynamics was an absolute law of nature. Instead he had to embrace Ludwig Boltzmann's interpretation, that the second law was a statistical law. In addition, Planck had to assume that the oscillators comprising the blackbody and re-emitting the radiant energy incident upon them could not absorb this energy continuously but only in discrete amounts, in quanta of energy; only by statistically distributing these quanta, each containing an amount of energy hn proportional to its frequency, over all of the oscillators present in the blackbody could Planck derive the formula he had hit upon two months earlier. He adduced additional evidence for the importance of his formula by using it to evaluate the constant h (his value was 6.55 ´ 10-27 erg-second, close to the modern value), as well as the so-called Boltzmann constant (the fundamental constant in kinetic theory and statistical mechanics), Avogadro's number, and the charge of the electron. As time went on physicists recognized ever more clearly that—because Planck's constant was not zero but had a small but finite value—the microphysical world, the world of atomic dimensions, could not in principle be described by ordinary classical mechanics. A profound revolution in physical theory was in the making. 。

Planck's concept of energy quanta, in other words, conflicted fundamentally with all past physical theory. He was driven to introduce it strictly by the force of his logic; he was, as one historian put it, a reluctant revolutionary. Indeed, it was years before the far-reaching consequences of Planck's achievement were generally recognized, and in this Einstein played a central role. In 1905, independently of Planck's work, Einstein argued that under certain circumstances radiant energy itself seemed to consist of quanta (light quanta, later called photons), and in 1907 he showed the generality of the quantum hypothesis by using it to interpret the temperature dependence of the specific heats of solids. In 1909 Einstein introduced the wave–particle duality into physics. In October 1911 he was among the group of prominent physicists who attended the first Solvay conference in Brussels. The discussions there stimulated Henri Poincaré to provide a mathematical proof that Planck's radiation law necessarily required the introduction of quanta—a proof that converted James (later Sir James) Jeans and others into supporters of the quantum theory. In 1913 Niels Bohr also contributed greatly to its establishment through his quantum theory of the hydrogen atom. Ironically, Planck himself was one of the last to struggle for a return to classical theory, a stance he later regarded not with regret but as a means by which he had thoroughly convinced himself of the necessity of the quantum theory. Opposition to Einstein's radical light quantum hypothesis of 1905 persisted until after the discovery of the Compton effect in 1922.。

Planck was 42 years old in 1900 when he made the famous discovery that in 1918 won him the Nobel Prize for Physics and that brought him many other honours. It is not surprising that he subsequently made no discoveries of comparable importance. Nevertheless, he continued to contribute at a high level to various branches of optics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, physical chemistry, and other fields. He was also the first prominent physicist to champion Einstein's special theory of relativity (1905). “The velocity of light is to the Theory of Relativity,” Planck remarked, “as the elementary quantum of action is to the Quantum Theory; it is its absolute core.” In 1914 Planck and the physical chemist Walther Hermann Nernst succeeded in bringing Einstein to Berlin, and after the war, in 1919, arrangements were made for Max von Laue, Planck's favourite student, to come to Berlin as well. When Planck retired in 1928, another prominent theoretical physicist, Erwin Schrödinger, the originator of wave mechanics, was chosen as his successor. For a time, therefore, Berlin shone brilliantly as a centre of theoretical physics—until darkness enveloped it in January 1933 with the ascent of Adolf Hitler to power. 。

In his later years, Planck devoted more and more of his writings to philosophical, aesthetic, and religious questions. Together with Einstein and Schrödinger, he remained adamantly opposed to the indeterministic, statistical worldview introduced by Bohr, Max Born, Werner Heisenberg, and others into physics after the advent of quantum mechanics in 1925–26. Such a view was not in harmony with Planck's deepest intuitions and beliefs. The physical universe, Planck argued, is an objective entity existing independently of man; the observer and the observed are not intimately coupled, as Bohr and his school would have it. 。

Planck became permanent secretary of the mathematics and physics sections of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1912 and held that position until 1938; he was also president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (now the Max Planck Society) from 1930 to 1937. These offices and others placed Planck in a position of great authority, especially among German physicists; seldom were his decisions or advice questioned. His authority, however, stemmed fundamentally not from the official appointments he held but from his personal moral force. His fairness, integrity, and wisdom were beyond question. It was completely in character that Planck went directly to Hitler in an attempt to reverse Hitler's devastating racial policies and that he chose to remain in Germany during the Nazi period to try to preserve what he could of German physics. 。

Planck was a man of indomitable will. Had he been less stoic, and had he had less philosophical and religious conviction, he could scarcely have withstood the tragedies that entered his life after age 50. In 1909, his first wife, Marie Merck, the daughter of a Munich banker, died after 22 years of happy marriage, leaving Planck with two sons and twin daughters. The elder son, Karl, was killed in action in 1916. The following year, Margarete, one of his daughters, died in childbirth, and in 1919 the same fate befell Emma, his other daughter. World War II brought further tragedy. Planck's house in Berlin was completely destroyed by bombs in 1944. Far worse, the younger son, Erwin, was implicated in the attempt made on Hitler's life on July 20, 1944, and in early 1945 he died a horrible death at the hands of the Gestapo. That merciless act destroyed Planck's will to live. At war's end, American officers took Planck and his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin, whom he had married in 1910 and by whom he had had one son, to Göttingen. There, in 1947, in his 89th year, he died. Death, in the words of James Franck, came to him “as a redemption.”

Editions of Planck's works include The Theory of Heat Radiation (1914, reprinted 1991; originally published in German, 2nd rev. ed., 1913); Where Is Science Going?, trans. from German (1932, reprinted 1981), discussing free will and determinism; and The Philosophy of Physics, trans. from German (1936, reissued 1963). Planck described his life and work in his Scientific Autobiography, and Other Papers, trans. from German (1949, reissued 1968). Henry Lowood (compiler), Max Planck: A Bibliography of His Non-Technical Writings (1977), lists more than 600 articles published between 1879 and 1976. 。

Hans Kangro, “Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck,” in Charles Coulston Gillispie (ed.), Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 11 (1975), pp. 7–17, contains an excellent short biography. Armin Hermann, Max Planck in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten (1973); and Hans Hartmann, Max Planck als Mensch und Denker (1953, reissued 1964), are biographies in German. J.L. Heilbron, The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck as Spokesman for German Science (1986), concentrates on the moral dilemmas Planck faced. 。

Technical books that treat Planck's work and the history of quantum physics include Edmund Whittaker, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, rev. and enlarged ed., vol. 2, The Modern Theories, 1900–1926 (1953, reissued 1987); Max Jammer, The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics (1966, reissued 1989); Armin Hermann, The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899–1913) (1971; originally published in German, 1969); Roger H. Stuewer, The Compton Effect: Turning Point in Physics (1975); Hans Kangro, Early History of Planck's Radiation Law (1976; originally published in German, 1970); and Thomas S. Kuhn, Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894–1912 (1978, reprinted 1987). 。

Nontechnical books include Barbara Lovett Cline, The Questioners: Physicists and the Quantum Theory (1965); Emilio Segrè, From X-Rays to Quarks: Modern Physicists and Their Discoveries (1980); Ilse Rosenthal-Schneider, Reality and Scientific Truth: Discussions with Einstein, von Laue, and Planck (1980); and Alex Keller, The Infancy of Atomic Physics: Hercules in His Cradle (1983). Especially noteworthy are three articles by Martin J. Klein: “Max Planck and the Beginning of the Quantum Theory,” Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 1(5):459–479 (1962), “Planck, Entropy, and Quanta, 1901–1906,” The Natural Philosopher, 1:83–108 (1963), and “Thermodynamics and Quanta in Planck's Work,” Physics Today, 19:23–32 (1966).。

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