Glassblowing

如何制造玻璃 紧急 最好要英语的 实在不行中文也行

glass blowing

生词本

简明释义

玻璃吹制

以下结果由 金山词霸 提供

网络释义

1. 吹玻璃

2. 吹制玻璃

3. 玻璃的吹制

玻璃吹制

[例句]Visitors can watch the men blowing glass in the workshop.。

游客可以观看工作在车间吹制玻璃器皿。

（高手请进）几段话需要中译英

里面含有玻璃制造的内容。

Glass

I INTRODUCTION 。

Glass, an amorphous substance made primarily of silica fused at high temperatures with borates or phosphates. Glass is also found in nature, as the volcanic material obsidian and as the enigmatic objects known as tektites (see Tektite). It is neither a solid nor a liquid but exists in a vitreous, or glassy, state in which molecular units have disordered arrangement but sufficient cohesion to produce mechanical rigidity. Glass is cooled to a rigid state without the occurrence of crystallization; heat can reconvert glass to a liquid form. Usually transparent, glass can also be translucent or opaque. Color varies with the ingredients of the batch.。

Molten glass is plastic and can be shaped by means of several techniques. When cold, glass can be carved. At low temperatures glass is brittle and breaks with a shell-like fracture on the broken face. Such natural materials as obsidian and tektites (from meteors) have compositions and properties similar to those of synthetic glass.。

Glass was first made before 2000 bc and has since served humans in many ways. It has been used to make useful vessels as well as decorative and ornamental objects, including jewelry. Glass also has architectural and industrial applications.。

II MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES 。

The basic ingredient of glass compositions is silica, derived from sand, flint, or quartz.。

A Composition and Properties 。

Silica can be melted at very high temperatures to form fused silica glass. Because this glass has a high melting point and does not shrink or expand greatly with changing temperatures, it is suitable for laboratory apparatus and for such objects subject to heat shock as telescope mirrors. Glass is a poor conductor of both heat and electricity and therefore useful for electrical and thermal insulation. For most glass, silica is combined with other raw materials in various proportions. Alkali fluxes, commonly the carbonates of sodium or potassium, lower the fusion temperature and viscosity of silica. Limestone or dolomite (calcium and magnesium carbonates) act as stabilizers for the batch. Other ingredients such as lead and borax give to glass certain physical properties.。

A1 Water Glass and Soda-Lime Glass 。

Glass of high soda content can be dissolved in water as a syrupy fluid. Known as water glass, it is used commercially for fireproofing and as a sealant. Most manufactured glass is a soda-lime composition used to make bottles, tableware, lamp bulbs, and window and plate glass.。

A2 Lead Glass 。

The fine-quality table glass known as crystal is made from potassium-silicate formulas that include lead oxide. Lead glass is heavy and has an enhanced capacity to refract light, which makes it suitable for lenses and prisms, as well as for imitation jewels. Because lead absorbs high-energy radiation, lead glasses are used in shields to protect personnel in nuclear installations.。

A3 Borosilicate Glass 。

Borosilicate glass contains borax as a major ingredient, along with silica and alkali. Noted for its durability and resistance to chemical attack and high temperatures, borosilicate glass is widely employed for cooking utensils, laboratory glassware, and chemical process equipment.。

A4 Color

Impurities in the raw materials affect the color of glass. For a clear, colorless substance, glassmakers add manganese to counteract the effects of iron traces that produce greens and browns. Glass can be colored by dissolving in it metallic oxides, sulfides, or selenides. Other colorants may be dispersed as microscopic particles.。

A5 Miscellaneous Ingredients 。

Typical glass formulas include broken waste glass of related composition (cullet), which promotes melting and homogenization of the batch. Fining agents such as arsenic or antimony are often added to cause the release of small bubbles during the melting.。

A6 Physical Properties 。

Depending on the composition, some glass will melt at temperatures as low as 500° C (900° F); others melt only at 1650° C (3180° F). Tensile strength, normally between 280 and 560 kg per sq cm (4000 and 8000 lb per sq in), can exceed 7000 kg per sq cm (100,000 lb per sq in) if the glass is specially treated. Specific gravity ranges from 2 to 8, or from less than that of aluminum to more than that of steel. Similarly wide variations occur in optical and electrical properties.。

B Mixing and Melting 。

After careful preparation and measurement, the raw materials are mixed and undergo initial fusion before being subjected to the full heat needed for vitrification. In the past, melting was done in clay pots heated in wood- or coal-burning furnaces. Pots of fireclay, holding from 0.5 to 1.5 metric tons of glass, are still used when relatively small amounts of glass are needed for handworking. In modern glass plants, most glass is melted in large tank furnaces, first introduced in 1872, that can hold more than 1000 metric tons of glass and are heated by gas, oil, or electricity. The glass batch is fed continuously into an opening (doghouse) at one end of the tank, and the melted, refined, and conditioned glass is drawn out the other end. In long forehearths, or holding chambers, the molten glass is brought to the correct working temperature, and the vitreous mass is then delivered to the forming machines.。

C Shaping

When working glass in its plastic state, five basic methods are employed to produce an almost limitless variety of shapes: casting, blowing, pressing, drawing, and rolling.。

C1 Casting

In this process, known to the ancients, molten glass is simply poured into a mold and allowed to cool and solidify. In modern times centrifugal casting processes have been developed in which the glass is forced against the sides of a rapidly rotating mold. Capable of forming precise, lightweight shapes, centrifugal casting is used for the production of television-tube funnels.。

C2 Glassblowing 。

The revolutionary discovery that glass could be insufflated and expanded to any shape was made in the third quarter of the 1st century bc, in the Middle East along the Phoenician coast. Glassblowing soon spread and became the standard way of shaping glass vessels until the 19th century. The necessary tool is a hollow iron pipe about 1.2 m (about 4 ft) long with a mouthpiece at one end. The glassblower, or gaffer, collects a small amount of molten glass, called a gather, on the end of the blowpipe and rolls it against a paddle or metal plate to shape its exterior (marvering) and to cool it slightly. The gaffer then blows into the pipe, expanding the gather into a bubble, or parison. By constantly reheating at the furnace opening, by blowing and marvering, the gaffer controls the form and thickness. Simple hand tools such as shears, tongs (pucellas), and paddles are used to refine the form, often while the glassblower sits in the special “glassmaker's chair,” one with extended arms to support the blowpipe. Blown glass can also be shaped with molds: Part-size molds pattern the gather, which is then removed and blown to the desired size. Full-size molds into which the gather is entirely blown impart size, shape, and decoration. Additional gathers may be applied and manipulated to form stems, handles, and feet, or they may be trailed on and tooled for decoration. A shaped bubble can be “flashed” with color by dipping it into molten glass of contrasting color. To make cased glass, a gather is placed within, and fused to, one or more layers of differently colored glass. For finish work and fire polishing at the mouth of the furnace, the gather is transferred to a solid iron rod called a pontil, applied opposite the blowpipe, which is then removed. When the pontil is cracked off it leaves a “pontil mark” that may be later ground or polished away.。

In 1903 a fully automatic blowing machine was perfected, thereby making mechanical glassblowing possible.。

C3 Pressing

Some pressing was involved in the production of ancient cast wares to ensure that the glass had full contact with the mold. Islamic artisans used simple handpresses to form glass weights and seals. European manufacturers rediscovered the technique in the late 18th century, using it to make decanter stoppers and the bases of stemmed tableware. In the 1820s patents were taken out, particularly in the U.S., that led to the development of fully mechanical pressing. In this process, a gather of glass is dropped into a mold, and a plunger then squeezes the glass between itself and the outer mold and forms the final shape. Both the mold and the plunger may be patterned to impart decorative design to the object being made.。

C4 Drawing

Molten glass can be drawn directly from the furnace to make tubing, sheets, fibers, and rods of glass that must have a uniform cross section. Tubing is made by drawing out a cylindrical mass of semifluid glass while a jet of air is blown down the center of the cylinder.。

C5 Rolling

Sheet glass, and plate glass in particular, was originally produced by pouring molten glass on a flat surface and, with a roller, smoothing it out prior to polishing both its surfaces. Later it came to be made by continuous rolling between double rollers.。

D Lampworking 。

Lampworking consists of the reworking of preformed and annealed glass, generally to produce scientific laboratory equipment and decorative toys and figures. Rods and cylinders are reheated by air-gas or oxygen-gas flames and refashioned by hand or machine.。

E Annealing

After being formed, glass objects are annealed to relieve stresses built up within the glass as it cools (see Annealing). In an oven called a lehr, the glass is reheated to a temperature high enough to relieve internal stresses and then slowly cooled to avoid introducing new stresses. Stresses can be added intentionally to impart strength to a glass article. Because glass breaks as a result of tensile stresses that originate across an infinitesimal surface scratch, compressing the surface increases the amount of tensile stress that can be endured before breakage occurs. A method called thermal tempering introduces surface compression by heating the glass almost to the softening point and then cooling it rapidly with an air blast or by plunging it into a liquid bath. The surface hardens quickly; the subsequent contraction of the slower-cooling interior portions of the glass pulls the surface into compression. Surface compressions approaching 2460 kg per sq cm (35,000 lb per sq in) can be obtained in thick pieces by this method. Chemical strengthening methods also have been developed in which, through an ion-exchange process, the composition or structure of the glass surface is altered and surface compression introduced. Strengths exceeding 7000 kg per sq cm (100,000 lb per sq in) can be attained by chemical strengthening.。

F Decoration

After annealing, a glass object may be embellished in a number of ways. Some of them are as follows:。

In cutting, to produce cut glass, facets, grooves, and depressions are ground into the surface with rotating disks of various materials, sizes, and shapes and a stream of water with an abrasive. The steps are marking the pattern, rough cutting, smoothing, and polishing.。

Designs are engraved by means of a diamond point or a metal needle, or with rotating wheels, generally of copper.。

In the etching process intaglio decoration is achieved with acid, the results varying from a rough to mat finish.。

In sandblasting, fine grains of sand, crushed flint, or powdered iron are projected at high speed onto the glass surface, leaving a design in mat finish.。

In cold painting, lacquer colors or oil paints are applied to glass but are not affixed by firing.。

In enamel painting, enamel colors are painted and then fused onto the surface in a low-temperature firing.。

In gilding, gold leaf, gold paint, or gold dust is applied to glassware and sometimes left unfired; low-temperature firing, however, is necessary for permanency.。

III GLASS AS AN ART FORM 。

Archaeological evidence indicates that glass was first made in the Middle East, sometime in the 3rd millennium bc.。

A Ancient Glass 。

The earliest glass objects were beads; hollow vessels do not occur before about 1500 bc. Asian artisans may have established the glass industry in Egypt, where the first vessels date from the reign (1479-1425 bc) of Thutmose III. Glass production flourished in Egypt and Mesopotamia until about 1200 bc, then virtually ceased for several hundred years. In the 9th century bc, Syria and Mesopotamia emerged as glassmaking centers, and the industry spread throughout the Mediterranean region. In the Hellenistic era, Egypt, because of the glassworks at Alexandria, assumed a leading role in supplying royal courts with luxury glass. It was on the Phoenician coast, however, that the important discovery of glassblowing occurred in the 1st century bc. In the Roman period glassmaking was undertaken in many areas of the empire, from Rome to Cologne.。

A1 Early Techniques 。

Before the invention of the blowpipe, several methods existed for shaping and embellishing objects of colored glass, both translucent and opaque. Some articles were carved from solid blocks of glass. From potters and metalworkers glassmakers adapted casting processes, pouring molten glass into molds to produce inlays, statuettes, and open vessels such as jars and bowls. Preformed rods of glass could be heated and fused together in a mold for a “ribbon” glass. Patterns of great complexity were achieved by a mosaic technique, in which elements, fused in a rod, together made a design in cross section. Slices of such rods could be arranged in a mold to shape a vessel or plaque and then heated to fusion. “Gold band” glasses featured irregular bands of different colored glass, with gold leaf embedded in one translucent band.。

The majority of pre-Roman glasswares were fashioned by the core technique. A mixture of clay and dung was fixed to a metal rod and given the internal shape of the desired vessel. It was dipped into a crucible of molten glass or was wound with threads of glass. The object was constantly reheated and smoothed on a flat stone. Threads of different colored glass were trailed on and combed, creating striking feather patterns, as seen on Egyptian glass of the 18th and 19th dynasties. Handles, feet, and the neck were added and the object cooled. The rod was withdrawn and the core material picked out. Only vessels of limited size, such as cosmetic containers and small vases, could be made this way. Later core-formed articles from the 6th century bc closely followed the forms of Greek pottery (see Pottery).。

A2 Roman Glass 。

Glassblowing, a less expensive and time-consuming method of manufacture, spread from Syria to Italy and other parts of the Roman Empire, gradually superseding the old techniques. A new taste in glass styles developed: The earlier manufacturing processes emphasized color and pattern; blowing enhanced the thin, translucent qualities of the material. Also, by the end of the 1st century ad, colorless glass supplanted colored glass as the most fashionable sort. Glassblowing made large-scale production possible and changed the status of glassware to an everyday material, used for windows, drinking vessels, and containers of all kinds.。

The structure of the empire doubtless fostered the extraordinary developments in glassmaking that occurred in this period. Most of the known decorative techniques were invented by artisans of the Roman era. Blown glasswares were patterned in part and full-size molds. Such molds enabled novelty items such as head-shaped flasks to be produced in quantity. A delicately patterned ewer (1st century ad) in the Corning Museum of Glass, Corning, New York, is one of a remarkable group of mold-blown objects that bear the names of their makers. Some Roman glass has elaborately threaded and tooled decoration. Glasswares could be painted with religious and historical scenes, or could feature designs in gold leaf pressed between two layers of clear glass. Ancient glassmakers adapted lapidary skills to make lathe-cut, carved, and engraved glass of considerable beauty. In cameo glass, layers of different colored glass were fused together and then carved so as to leave contrasting motifs in relief. Best known of Roman cameo glass is the Portland Vase (1st century ad, British Museum, London), which depicts the myth of Peleus and Thetis. Delicate effects were achieved in the diatreta, or caged cups, in which great portions of the outer surface were cut away, leaving an intricate openwork frame that appears to stand almost free of the vessel within. The famous Lycurgus Cup (4th century ad, British Museum) epitomizes this practice.。

B Western Glass 。

The manufacture of household glass suffered a general decline in the West with the fall of the Roman Empire.。

B1 Medieval Glass 。

Under Frankish influence glassmakers in northern Europe and Britain continued to produce utilitarian vessels, some of new, robust forms. The decoration of these objects was limited to simple molded patterns, threading, and applied ornaments such as prunts (blobs of glass). Mostly green in color, the glass was at first a soda-glass composition made with ashes of marine plants imported from the Mediterranean, as they had been during Roman times. By the late Middle Ages, however, soda was no longer available, and northern glassmakers turned to the wood ash from their own wood-fired furnaces as a flux, for a potash-lime glass. Because the glasshouses were situated in the forests that provided fuel and ash, the glass made was called forest glass, waldglas. Common glass in the waldglas style continued to be made in the lesser European factories until modern times.。

The glory of Western glassmaking in the medieval period, through patronage of the church, was mosaic glass in Mediterranean Europe and stained-glass windows in the north (see Mosaics; Stained Glass). Mosaics were made of small glass cubes, or tesserae, embedded in cement. The tesserae, cut from solid cakes of glass, could be extremely elaborate, with gold and silver lead inlaid. Little is known of the production of mosaic glass before the 14th century.。

Glass windows in churches are mentioned in documents as early as the 6th century, but the earliest extant examples date from the 11th century. The finest windows are considered those from the 13th and 14th centuries, primarily in France and England. Glasshouses in Lorraine and Normandy (Normandie) may have provided much of the flat glass for medieval cathedral windows. The glass was colored, or flashed with color, and then cut into the shapes required by the design. Details were painted into the glass, often with a brownish enamel. The pieces were fitted into lead strips and set in an iron framework. The art declined in the late Renaissance but was revived in the 19th century.。

B2 Renaissance to the 18th Century 。

Although glassmaking was practiced in Venice from the 10th century on, the earliest known Venetian glassware dates from the 15th century. Concentrated on the island of Murano, the Venetian industry dominated the European market until 1700. The major contribution of the Venetians was the development of a highly refined, hard-soda glass of great ductility. Colorless and highly transparent, the glass resembled rock crystal and was known as cristallo.。

The first cristallo wares were simple forms, often embellished with jewel-like enamel designs. Objects were also blown of colored and opaque glass. By the late 16th century, forms became lighter and more delicate. The blowers exploited the workable nature of their material to produce fanciful tours de force. A type of filigree glass was developed in Venice and widely imitated. With lacelike effect, opaque white threads were incorporat。

Thirteen Senses乐队的 歌词翻译

翻译这种文章难度还挺高的。先来一段，看看能否通过您的审核！

The garden was basking under the late Autumn sun for the whole morning and then the afternoon, just like a ripened fruit falling, falling, and emitting strong aroma. Intermittently, Changan heard a melody of harmonica, stolidly playing the tune ‘Long, long ago’---“Tell me that story, my favorite old story; long, long ago……”. This was the present, but it would transform into long ago in a trice, and then it’s all over. Mesmerized, Changan went looking for the harmonica player----or rather herself. Against the sun she walked, and reached beneath a tree, she saw a boy in yellow shorts shimmying on a branch and playing a harmonica; but he was playing another tune which she had never heard before. The tree was not very big, the sparsely phoenix leaves were swinging under the sun like golden bells. Changan was looking face-up, her eyes hazed over and like a torrential rain, tears were covering all over her face. 。

2,夜深闻私语，月落如金盆。现在我寄住在旧梦里，在旧梦里做着新的梦。 写到这里，背上吹的风有点冷了，定去关上玻璃门，阳台上看见毛毛的黄月亮。 古代的夜里有更鼓，现在有卖馄饨的梆子，千年来无数人的梦的拍板：“托，托， 托，托”——可爱又可哀的年月呵！

Deep into the night I heard the merest whispering, the moon sank into the water and appeared like a golden basin. Now I am dwelling in my old dream while breeding a new one. Reaching here, I felt the cold breeze creeping on my back; so I went to close the glass doors, and from the balcony, I could see the hazy golden moon. In the old days you could hear the gong announcing the hours in the night, nowadays there were the wooden clappers of the wonton hawkers; for thousands of years, these were the dream clappers of countless people: ‘tuck, tuck, tuck tuck’----Oh, what lovely and miserable years! (如果强调文采，可以用 Oh, what lovely and melancholy years! ) 。

3,昨天到叔惠家里去了一趟，我也知道叔惠不会在家的，我就是想去看看他的父亲母亲， 因为你一直跟他们住在一起的，我很希望他们会讲起你。叔惠的母亲说了好些关于你的事 情，都是我不知道的。她说你从前比现在还要瘦，又说起你在学校里时候的一些琐事。我听 她说着这些话，我真觉得非常安慰，因为--你走开太久了我就有点恐惧起来了，无缘无故 的。世钧！我要你知道，这世界上有一个人是永远等着你的，不管是在什么时候，不管你是 在什么地方，反正你知道，总有这样一个人。世钧看到最后几句，就好像她正对着他说话似的。隔着那悠悠岁月，还可以听见她的声 音。他想着："她难道还在那里等着我吗？" 。

3. “I went to Shuhui’s house yesterday with the full knowledge that he wouldn’t be home, because I just wanted to see his parents; since you had been staying with them, I hoped that they would talk about you. Shuhui’s mother had related a lot of things about you that were unknown to me. She had said that you were thinner before and she also recollected some trifles while you were in school. Listening to her words was an immense consolation to me, because. ..you have been away for too long and I have started to feel scared with no reasons at all. I want you to know, Shijun, there is a person in this world who will wait for you forever, irrespective of where and when, somehow you know there is this person.” Reading the last few lines, Shijun felt that as if she was having a conversation with him, he could still hear her voice with those long, long years apart. He asked himself, “Can she still be waiting for me there”? 。

注：第二段我还是给您翻译了，因为它很有挑战性！！另外，在这用ripen 还是比较恰当的。但我忘了加 ed, 将动词变为形容词。

歌名：Thru The Glass。

歌手： Thirteen Senses。

发行时间：2013-08-23 。

流派：摇滚

发行公司：环球唱片

所属专辑：《Thru The Glass》

歌词：

I wanna take a walk, rain cloud, coat on。

我想去散个步，雨云在天，穿上外套。

And the wind is blowing from the south。

风从南吹来

I wanna climb a rock from bottom to top。

我想从底到顶攀登岩石（越过障碍）

And nothing's getting left behind。

而不遗留下任何东西

I wanna hear your voice call me, call out loud。

我想听到你呼唤我的声音，大声地呼唤。

When you talk to me I'll hear you out。

当你与我谈话，我专心聆听

I wanna space it out, too close, move on out。

我想拉远距离，太近了，移开些

It's all around for you to see。

你能看到世界如此广阔

Yeah, it's all around to see。

世界如此广阔

But there's such a lot of baggage。

但是负担又有那么多

You got us into this, so get us out of this。

你当初把我们卷进来，现在让我们解脱。

Get us out of this, get us out of。

让我们解脱，让我们解脱

You got us into this, so get us out of this。

你当初把我们卷进来，来让我们解脱。

Get us out of this, get us out。

让我们解脱，让我们解脱

Oh, get us out of this。

噢，让我们从这之中解脱

Oh, get us out of this。

噢，让我们从这之中解脱

Oh, get us out of。

噢，让我们解脱

I wanna lose control, look down, scream out loud。

我想失控、轻视、大声尖叫

Let the others sort it out。

让其他人来解决问题

I wanna be impressed with everyone, yeah。

我想被每一个人打动

Everyone give all the best。

每个竭尽所能的人

原文地址：http://www.qianchusai.com/Glassblowing.html