whereby-50

异国风情英语资料

一、这两道题都涉及到副词whereby。whereby意思是“凭借…/ 通过…”，它有下面的两种含义：

1、方式副词，例如：

Whereby shall we know her? 我们靠什么认出她呢？

Whereby will he do it? 他会如何做？

I whereby saw that he was angry.  由此我看出他生气了。

2、关系副词（= by which），引导定语从句，例如：

We need to devise some sort of system whereby people can liaise with each other. 我们须想出一套方法，凭此大家能够互相联络。

There is no other way whereby we can cross the river. 我们没有别的办法过河。

二、搞清楚上面的用法，下面的题目就会迎刃而解。

第一题：Watermelons have been cultivated for more than 4000 years, (and whereby thumping them) to test for ripeness has an equally long history.。

 【选择】D、and thumping them。

 【解析】前面提到“西瓜已经种植了4000多年”，后面说“凭借这一点可知，拍打习惯判断成熟程度有同样长的历史”，前后是并列关系，whereby应该是方式副词，而不是关系副词。连词and 前面用逗号表示语义的转折，不用逗号表示的承接。

第二题：The name "transferware" (comes from a nineteenth-century technique for which) a pattern is engraved onto a copper roll, printed on tissue paper, and transferred onto earthware dishes.。

 【选择】C、comes from a nineteenth-century technique whereby。

 【解析】本句的结构如下：

主句：The name "transferware" comes from a nineteenth-century technique——transferware 这个名称来自十九世纪的技术。

定语从句：whereby a pattern is engraved onto a copper roll, printed on tissue paper, and transferred onto earthware dishes. 借助这种技术，花样先被雕刻到铜滚上，然后印到薄纸，最后复制到陶瓷盘上。

Who can tell me the history and culture of thailand? Please answer it in English. Thank you.

法国风土人情

交际习俗

注重服饰的华丽和式样的更新。妇女视化妆和美容为生活之必需。时间观念强，工作计划性强，奉行“女士第一”的原则。习惯行握手礼，有一定社会身份的人施吻手礼。少女常施屈膝礼。男女之间，女子之间及男子之间，还有亲吻面颊的习惯。社交中不愿他人过问个人私事。反感向妇女赠送香水及初次见面就送礼。

信仰禁忌

大多信仰天主教。忌“13”和“星期五”。忌黄色和墨绿色。忌孔雀和仙鹤。视菊花、杜鹃花与核桃等为不祥之物。喜爱艺术和娱乐活动。

饮食特点

法国人会吃，也讲究吃。法国菜风靡世界。法国人喜欢吃蜗牛和青蛙腿，最名贵的菜是鹅肝。喜欢喝酒。法国菜的特点是鲜嫩。法国人也非常喜欢中国菜。

服饰

法国时装在世界上享有盛誉，选料丰富、优异，设计大胆，制作技术高超，使法国时装一直引导世界时装潮流。在巴黎有2000家时装店，老板们的口号是：“时装不卖第二件”。而在大街上，几乎看不到两个妇女穿着一模一样的服装。目前高级时装最有名的有：“吉莱热”、“巴朗夏卡”、“吉旺熙”、“夏奈尔”、“狄奥尔”、“卡丹”和圣洛朗”。近年来，特别引人注目的是巴黎女郎的裙子，其式样之多。款式之新，在别国很难见到。法国人是把收入的最小部分用于穿着的欧洲国家，法国人一般很注意服装方面的鉴赏力，也接受比较便宜的而不十分讲究的仿制品。

小动物

当今法国家庭，对小动物恩宠倍加，不惜耗费巨金收买哺养。有一半以上家庭饲养各种小动物，总头数在3000万只以上。1/3的家庭养狗，狗的数量已近4万条。各种狗医院、狗服装店屡见不鲜。动物不仅给法国人带来了乐趣，也造成一定灾难。法国每年发生狗伤人的事件50多万起。

礼仪

法国是一个讲文明礼貌的国家。对妇女谦恭礼貌是法国人引以自豪的传统。法国人见面打招呼，最常见的方式莫过于握手。不过握手时一是握时间不应过长，二是没有必要握住人家的手使劲晃动。一般是女子向男子先伸手，年长者向年幼者先伸手。上级向下级先伸手。

吻

法国是第一个公认以吻表示感情的国家。法国人的吻有严格的界限：他们在见到久别重逢的亲友、同事时，是贴贴脸或颊，长辈对小辈则是亲额头，只有在爱人和情侣之间，才亲嘴或接吻。

婚俗

结婚前先订婚，仪式简单，一般由女方的家长宴请男方的家长及兄弟姐妹，也可同时邀请其他亲戚、甚至一两名好友出席。婚礼也已逐渐简化，但仍不失为最隆重的家庭节日，带有庄严神圣的色彩。婚礼由市长或他的一名副手主持，习惯上是在周二、四、五、六早9时至下午5时之间。婚后大宴宾客。法国农村有的地方在婚前要签订财产婚约并办理公证。婚约中要写明未婚夫妇的全部财产、未婚妻的嫁妆和未婚夫的产业。婚龄纪念在民间已成为一种喜庆的风俗。女子守寡300天后，或宣布与丈夫分居300天后可以再嫁，男子则无时间上的限制。

圣灵节

每年11月1日圣灵节，相当于中国的清明节。法国人习惯上在这一天去墓地祭奠，缅怀为国捐躯的先烈。圣喀德琳娜节 巴黎“大龄女青年”的节日。每年11月25日这一天，年满25 岁而尚未婚配的姑娘们到喀德琳娜塑像前献一束鲜花，再到大时装店跳舞，饮酒狂欢，最后选出一位最美的姑娘作为节日的王后。

用餐习惯

法国人把烹调看成是一门艺术,法国菜也确实风糜全球。在法国一日三餐通常是这样安排的。 早餐:面包、咖啡、热巧克力； 午餐:午餐是法国人最重要的一餐,一般在下午一点左右, 晚餐则在九点以后。法国人社交的正餐一般要持续两小时以上,开始先是开胃菜,然后是鱼或意大利面条,再才是主菜,主菜还附带许多生菜、沙拉、奶酪,水果,有时还有甜点心,餐后咖啡也必不可少。

西班牙风土人情

西班牙基本概况

西班牙是一个集浪漫与激情于一身的国度，它的历史，它的艺术，还有它的气质不断地吸引着好奇的人们。斗牛、舞蹈、吉它。

① 地理环境：

西班牙位于欧洲西南部伊比利亚半岛大西洋(Mar Cantabrico)和地中海(Mar Mediterraneo)航道的咽喉处的多山(坎塔布、利牛斯、戈列多和瓜达拉马等山脉)、 多河流(埃布罗河R.Ebro、杜罗河R.Duero、塔霍河R.Taje、瓜达尔基维尔河R.Gualguivir)、高源国家。中部梅塞塔高源区约占全国面积的60%，为大陆性气候。北部和西北部沿海地带为海洋性温带气候。南部和东南部为地中海式亚热带气候。大部分地区降水量为500~1500毫米之间。南部几乎全年无霜冻。西班牙总面积为50多万平方公里。人口为3871万多。大部分是卡斯蒂利亚人Castilla，少数民族加泰罗尼亚人Cataluña、巴斯克人Valencia和加利西亚人Galicia。官方语言为西班牙语。94%居民信封天主教。

② 政治经济环境：

西班牙实行议会君主制，王位由胡安-卡洛斯及其直系后代世袭。国王为国家元首和武装部队最高统帅。政府为工社党一党政府，由议会监督政府工作。马德里为西班牙首都。 西班牙是比较发达的资本主义工业国。因缺乏动力和工业原料，经济对外依赖性较大，

所需的石油、铁矿、炼焦煤等均靠进口。出口有小汽车、钢材、水泥、船舶、纺织品、水银、肥料、酒类、橄榄油等。欧洲共同体和美国是西班牙的主要贸易伙伴。

西班牙城市与名胜古迹

① 马德里

西班牙首都马德里是欧洲著名古城。马德里坐落在伊比里亚半岛的中心，瓜达拉马山耸立于它北面，地处梅塞塔高源，海拨670米，是欧洲地势最高的首都。曼萨内罗斯河R.Manzanalis绕城流过。交通发达，四郊湖泊众多，树木成阴，气候宜人。马德里中心由“太阳门广场、中心广场、西班牙广场”形成三角地带。“太阳门广场”—是马德里的中央广场，从这里向四面辐射出条条大道，形成它密如蛛网的城市结构。在广场中间的花坛，竖立头着一只攀依在莓树上粗壮雄健的棕熊雕塑，这是马德里的城微。这只粗壮雄健的棕熊显示着马德里人民不屈不挠的倔强性格。从太阳门通向四面八方的大街上可以看到许多古代和中世纪的宫殿、教堂、雕塑，这些建筑和艺术作品有哥特式的、阿拉伯式的、还许多形式汇集于一体的。特别是用各种石子和玻璃镶嵌的壁画，鲜艳夺目，十分美观。

“哥伦布广场”—航海家哥伦布塑像坐落在广场中央，手指南美方向，似乎象他1492年月日10月发现巴哈马郡岛时的精神，圆形喷水池围护着塑像，喷射几米高的水柱，夜晚映射出红、绿紫各色灯光，格外迷人。在地下建有哥伦布博物馆，供人们参观。

“西班牙广场”—西班牙广场有西班牙17世纪著名作家塞万提斯(Cervantes)的塑像和他的著名小说《唐.吉诃德》中的两个主人公——拉曼骑士唐.吉诃德和他的忠实于他的仆人桑科.潘沙铜像。

“中心广场”—市中心大广场是16、17世纪文艺复兴式建筑，于1619年完工。科米拉斯广场附近的基督教主教堂也是文艺复兴式建筑（建于1535年）。现在的市立博物馆、图书馆、普罗温西亚广场附近的外交部大厦以及横跨曼萨内罗斯河的塞戈维亚大桥均为17世纪晚期的巴罗克式建筑。建于是1907~1917年的邮政总局大楼是20世纪以来第一座豪华建筑。

“普拉多博物馆”——马德里共有30多座博物馆，其中世界闻名的绘画展览馆——普拉多博物馆有“欧洲古典美术宝库”之誉。馆内设有30个展厅，收集了15世纪~19世纪全世界最珍贵的西班牙美术作品和意大利著名画家的3000多幅作品。另外，还有许多史前时代的资料及罗马人、摩尔人和中古时代的遗物。

“东方之宫”—坐落在马德里西部、曼萨内罗斯河左岸一座山岗上的西班牙古代王宫“东方之宫”，是现存的世界上最完整、最精美的宫殿之一。其雄伟在英首府国的白金汉宫之上，可以与法国的凡尔赛宫媲美。它是按着18世纪最流行的建筑风格建成的。它外形具有典型的法国风格，雄伟壮观；内部装饰却是地道的意大利情调，豪华绝论。它是西班牙旅游业的一颗明珠，宫殿内宽大华丽的厅堂，陈设精美，使来访者叹为观止。壁毯展馆内珍藏着世界上最罕见的、最有价值的大形壁毯。另外，东方之宫还收藏着45座各国钟表，至今还走的很准。

② 巴塞罗那

位于在西班牙东北部地中海岸的巴塞罗那，是西班牙的第二大城市，有“伊比利亚半岛的明玫瑰珠”之称。1833年以前西班牙最富裕的地区加泰罗尼亚的府。海滩平坦宽阔、气候适宜人。在老区有古罗马城墙和6世纪宫殿遗迹。哥特式天主教堂矗立在老城中央，内有巴塞罗那守护神圣欧拉利亚的地下墓室，里面安放白大理石棺。还有王家广场(14~16世纪)、和平广场(靠近港湾)。在港口有一艘哥伦布发现新大陆时的帆船复制品，广场上的哥伦布纪念碑俯临港口。

“花市大街”，由和平广场和市中心卡塔卢尼亚广场的兰布拉斯大街连接成为最大的鲜花市场。卡塔卢尼亚广场上有女神石像还有喷泉。城区西面西班牙广场上的“光明泉”、蒙特会奇公园的层层阶梯瀑布，入夜水光交映。14世纪遗留下来的市内西班牙最大的“神圣家族教堂”，每逢星期日中午有民俗舞蹈表演。

巴塞罗那是西班牙文化中心。有巴塞罗那大学(1430年创办)、利塞奥大剧院和各种博物馆(毕加索博物馆、加泰罗尼亚大艺术博物馆、现代艺术馆、酒类博物馆、西班牙村)20余处。每年四份的玫瑰花展览和斗牛及最大的国际贸易展览十分吸引人。

郊区的布拉瓦海岸，是地中海沿岸著名的避署胜地。

③ 塞维利亚；

位于西班牙西南部，是一座二千多年历史的著名文化古城。优美的吉普赛音乐、弗拉门科舞和斗牛著称全欧。金子塔(12边形、30米高弧形塔顶)，坐落在格兰德河畔。因格兰德河是在西班牙境内唯一能通行的内陆河，当年哥伦布从这里扬帆入海的。哥德式 塞维利亚大教堂(建于15世纪)，是西班牙最漂亮的教堂，据称仅次于罗马圣彼得和伦敦圣保罗大教堂，在世界基督教教堂中位居第三(细长的尖塔、五个教堂中殿和十个侧面小教堂及古围墙)。

④ 巴利阿里群岛(La.Baleares)；

Lansalote岛(La.Baleares最北端)地热水煮羊肉，Las.parmas港小飞机去50分钟到Lansalote岛。全岛很小下雨，但到处香蕉绿地，诲边游泳，远洋捕鱼船队。

西班牙风土人情

① 西班牙的民俗节

西班牙人在“除夕之夜”，全家人团聚在一起待遇12点教堂钟声敲响起吃下12颗葡萄，便象征着新年的每个月都一切如意。

西班牙的“梅里达”，每年10月上旬，是吉普赛族妇女节(族内通婚、自由寻找，但须父母允诺、婚礼由族长主持、割破新娘新郎的背部)。

“法耶节”，是西班牙规模最盛大的节日之一，每年3月12~19日，在西班牙东部濒临地中海的古城巴伦西亚举行火烧形象逼真的纸形(当地人称之为法耶)，以揭露社会丑恶现象。这期间从西班牙各地和世界各地来观光的人很多，到19日活动达到高潮，从早到晚，街上人潮起伏，载歌载舞，下午，在市府广场上举行评选发奖，人们跳舞狂欢，午夜12点开始燃烧全市纸形，一个个巨大的纸形在熊熊烈火燃烧下，逐渐化为灰烬。

西班牙可称之为“橄榄王国”，橄榄林漫山遍野，连绵不断。橄榄果、橄榄油(Aceite de olivo)为世界最多。除了食用外，涂抹于全身的古老保健美容术一直沿用至今(健美运动员也用)。

“西班牙斗牛”，起源于西班牙古代宗教活动(杀牛供神祭品)。13世纪西班牙国王阿方索十世开始这种祭神活动演变为赛牛表演(真正斗牛表演则18世纪中叶)。现在西班牙300多斗牛场(最大的是马德里的文塔斯斗牛场，可容纳2.5万人)。每年3月~11月是西班牙斗牛节，通常以星期日和星期四为斗牛日(使用体重4千公斤的非洲纯种公牛)。

“西班牙斗鸡”更为奇特，一个3平方米的圆笼子内，放入两只公鸡互斗。公鸡分量不得相差1两，每场斗30分钟。笼外则围着200多赌客各下赌注在一头鸡身上训练一只鸡，需要一年时间，一年可斗8场，训练有素的斗鸡售价可达500美元，还大量出口。

②西班牙人的生活与礼节

西班牙是一个古老文明的国家，讲文明、礼貌。热情、好客、善良的民族 。

生活，住房(农场别墅、游泳池)，母系社会(妇女持家，孩子多，讲卫生，姑娘变为家庭主妇性格差异-男人固守的钱夹、晚10点钟回家的故事)，生日、成人节请柬故事，挣一元钱要花两块钱，没有红眼病。酒巴，身上味、食品中的橄榄油(Aceite de olivo)味。时间观念很差(Asta mañan)，来晚了，也没人说对不起/No hay importa。

feel - Darren Hayes 歌词翻译

The modern Thai are descended from a much larger group of peoples who speak Tai languages. Tai-speaking peoples are found from extreme northeastern India in the west to northern Vietnam in the east and as far south as the central Malay Peninsula. In the past scholars held that a parent group called the Proto-Tai originated in southern China and pushed south and west from the China landmass into northern mainland Southeast Asia. Most scholars now believe that the Tai came from northern Vietnam around the Dien Bien Phu area and that about 1,000 years ago they spread from there northward into southern China, westward into southwestern China, northern Myanmar (Burma) and northeastern India, and southward into what are now Laos and Thailand.。

Early Tai culture。

The Tai were lowland peoples who historically settled along river valleys in northern mainland Southeast Asia and southwestern China. There they formed small settlements where they practiced subsistence agriculture based on rice cultivation, supplemented by fishing and gathering forest products. Early in their history the Tai domesticated animals: they used water buffalo for plowing and ritual purposes and pigs and fowl for food. Women were accorded relatively high social status and could inherit property. The Tai practiced animism; they believed that spirits could be benevolent or malevolent and needed to be propitiated through offerings and special ceremonies.。

The basic unit of Tai political organization was the müang, or group of villages, ruled by a chao, or hereditary chief or lord. During the 1st millennium AD the political strengths of the müang system enabled the Tai to move out of their original homeland until, by the 8th century, they had expanded across much of northern mainland Southeast Asia. By the 11th century they had begun to filter down into the area of present-day Thailand, and by the middle of the following century they had formed petty principalities there.。

Mon-Khmer civilizations。

As the Tai moved into mainland Southeast Asia, they came in contact with peoples speaking Mon-Khmer languages who had long inhabited the region. During the early centuries of the 1st millennium AD, Indian traders traveling to China had carried Hindu and Buddhist beliefs and practices to some of these peoples. Among them were the Mon of Myanmar, the first peoples in mainland Southeast Asia to adopt Buddhism. Between the 6th and 9th centuries the Mon established several small Buddhist kingdoms within the area encompassed by present-day southern Myanmar and central Thailand. From what are now the towns of Nakhon Pathom and Lop Buri (Lopburi) in west-central Thailand, they extended their power eastward across the Khorat Plateau, northward as far as Chiang Mai (Chiengmai), and northeastward into what is now Laos. These Mon kingdoms collectively are called Dvaravati. The Dvaravati period is noted for its artwork, particularly its Buddhist sculptures and votive images made of terra-cotta or stucco.。

As the Tai moved south into mainland Southeast Asia, they also encountered the Khmer of Cambodia. Between the 9th and 13th centuries Khmer rulers expanded their domains from their capital at Angkor, establishing an empire that at its height under Jayavarman VII (ruled 1181–c. 1220) extended over approximately half of modern Thailand. While Mon kingdoms were predominantly Buddhist in character, Khmer civilization—which found its supreme expression in the great temple complex at Angkor—was heavily influenced by Hindu ideas and practices. Tai contacts with the Khmer led to many Hindu elements entering Tai culture, particularly in regard to royal ceremonies or classical dance and literature. Many of these elements can still be found in modern Thai culture today.。

By the beginning of the 13th century, the Tai were starting to place pressure on both the Mon and Khmer empires. The Tai were settled throughout the Chao Phraya basin, and a Tai ruler was established as far south as the principality of Nakhon Si Thammarat, on the Malay Peninsula. Through Nakhon Si Thammarat a new form of Buddhism—Theravāda—had entered mainland Southeast Asia from Sri Lanka. Theravāda Buddhism was carried by monks not only to areas under Mon or Khmer rule but also to the new Tai principalities that were beginning to emerge. Sukhothai and Lan Na (Lanna), the first major Tai kingdoms in Thai history, were Theravāda Buddhist.。

Sukhothai and Lan Na。

The kingdom of Sukhothai, situated in the upper Chao Phraya basin, was founded in the mid-13th century when a local Tai ruler led a revolt against Khmer rule at an outpost of the Khmer empire. During its first two reigns, Sukhothai remained only a small local power. Under its third ruler, Ramkhamhaeng (ruled c. 1279–98), however, Sukhothai power was extended to the south as far as Nakhon Si Thammarat, to the west into what is now Myanmar, and to the northeast as far as Luang Prabang in modern Laos. Not all these territories were conquered by force: many became vassal or tributary states to Sukhothai based on ties of kinship or personal loyalty and linked to it in a loose confederation.。

Ramkhamhaeng is renowned not only for extending the territory under Sukhothai control but also for leaving a remarkable stone inscription, which is considered by most scholars to contain the earliest example of writing in the Thai language. Written in 1292 and utilizing Khmer script adapted to the sounds and tones of Tai speech, it pictures the Sukhothai kingdom as prosperous, active in trade, and benevolently governed by a paternal monarch. According to the inscription, the state taxed its citizens modestly, treated all citizens (including non-Tai) alike, and provided justice for all. The Sukhothai period (mid-13th to mid-15th century) also is noted for its sculpture and pottery. Graceful bronze sculptures of the Buddha, especially those showing him in the walking position, are typical of the period, while the celadon ware made at Sukhothai and nearby Sawankhalok was exported throughout Southeast Asia.。

Sukhothai was not the only Tai state in Southeast Asia during this period. In the mid-13th century in what is today northern Thailand, a Tai ruler, Mangrai (ruled c. 1259–1317; from 1292 to 1317 in Chiang Mai), conquered the ancient Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya and built a new capital at Chiang Mai. Under Mangrai and his successors, Lan Na—with Chiang Mai as its capital—became not only powerful but also a centre for the spread of Theravāda Buddhism to Tai peoples in what are now northeastern Myanmar, southern China, and northern Laos. Under Tilokaracha (ruled 1441–87), Lan Na became famous for its Buddhist scholarship and literature. During the 16th century Lan Na was conquered by the Myanmar and incorporated into the Burman empire. Subsequently, the central Tai (Siamese) states of Ayutthaya (Ayudhya, or Ayuthia) and Bangkok challenged Burman control over the area, but it was not until the 19th century that Lan Na was brought fully under Siamese rule.。

The Ayutthayan period, 1351–1767。

Map/Still:Ayutthaya (Ayudhya) kingdom, mid-15th century.。

* Ayutthaya (Ayudhya) kingdom, mid-15th century.。

Whereas Sukhothai was an independent kingdom for only about 200 years, its successor, Ayutthaya—situated in the rich rice plains of the Chao Phraya River basin, about 55 miles north of present-day Bangkok—lasted more than 400 years. During the Ayutthayan period the Tai consolidated their position as the leading power in what is now central and north-central Thailand, as well as throughout much of its southern peninsular region. Since many of Ayutthaya's neighbours called the country “Siam,” or a name similar to it, the Tai of Ayutthaya came to be known as the Siamese.。

Ayutthaya at first was only a small city-kingdom on the northwestern edge of the powerful Khmer empire. Within less than a century, however, Tai kings succeeded in pushing back the Khmer, and in 1431 they sacked their great capital of Angkor. Wars against neighbouring powers remained endemic, however, throughout the Ayutthayan period. In 1438 a greatly weakened Sukhothai was made a province of Ayutthaya. Lan Na, however, remained free of Ayutthayan control, although it was later brought under Burman influence.。

When the Siamese conquered Angkor, they brought many Khmer captives back to Ayutthaya with them. Some had been officials or craftsmen at the Khmer royal court. From them Ayutthaya's rulers adopted many Hindu practices that had been followed by the Khmer, including the concept of the ruler as god-king (devarāja). The king acquired powers of life and death over all his people. None but members of the royal family might gaze upon his face. He could be addressed only in a special language used exclusively for royalty, while those speaking to the king referred to themselves as “the dust beneath your majesty's feet.”

The power of the ruler was enhanced not only through symbolic and ideological concepts drawn from Khmer-Hindu beliefs about the god-king but also through the centralization of political power. Trailok (ruled 1448–88) created a state in which the ruler stood at the centre of a series of concentric circles. As in the müang system, the outer circles were governed by hereditary lords, or chao. The inner circles, however, were administered by officeholders appointed by the king, and thus these operated to a limited degree on bureaucratic rather than hereditary lines.。

The kings of Ayutthaya also issued formal codes of civil and criminal law based on the ancient Indian body of jurisprudence called the Dharma-śāstra. At the same time, a formal and highly complex hierarchical system assigned each person a varying number of units (called sakdi na) that designated one's rank within society. At the bottom of the scale, a slave was worth 5 units; freemen were ranked at 25 and above, while the heir apparent was assigned no fewer than 100,000 units.。

The mass of the people in Ayutthayan times were peasant farmers, either freemen or slaves. The latter included war captives, bondsmen, and debtors. Freemen were obliged to work for six months each year for the local representatives of the king, to pay taxes, and to provide military service as required. An intricate patronage system extended throughout society, whereby clients provided their patrons with services in return for the protection of the patrons. Ayutthaya was an underpopulated society, and the constant need for manpower helped protect clients from excessive demands by patrons; if the demands of the patrons became too burdensome, the freeman could always move and take up new land as a last resort.。

Despite the introduction of Brahmanism into court ritual and the admixture of animism and superstition that pervaded religious practice at all levels of society, Theravāda Buddhism took deep root throughout Siam during Ayutthayan times. The Buddhist monastic establishment played an important role in society, forming a focal point for village life, providing young males with an education, and offering those who elected to remain in the monkhood (sangha) a channel for upward social mobility.。

Map/Still:Ayutthaya (Ayudhya) kingdom, mid-15th century.。

* Ayutthaya (Ayudhya) kingdom, mid-15th century.。

Ayutthaya at its height was one of the wealthiest and most cosmopolitan cities of its day. Although it lay inland, it was easily accessible to oceangoing vessels traveling up the Chao Phraya River, and it became a thriving international trade emporium. It was during this period that European traders and travelers first started coming to Siam. The Portuguese reached Siam as early as 1511, following their conquest of Malacca (Melaka) on the Malay Peninsula; they were followed in the 17th century by Dutch, English, Spanish, and French traders and missionaries. Ayutthayan kings permitted settlements of Chinese, Indian, and Persian, as well as European, traders; they employed Japanese warriors and allowed Western missionaries to preach within Ayutthayan domains. In addition to engaging in extensive trade with China, Southeast Asia, and India, the rulers of Ayutthaya also sent triennial tribute missions to the Chinese imperial court, established Buddhist missions in Sri Lanka, and sent emissaries abroad as far afield as Europe. King Narai (ruled 1656–88) initiated a series of diplomatic exchanges between Ayutthaya and the French court at Versailles and even appointed a Greek adventurer, Constantine Phaulkon, as his chief minister. Eventually, however, the Europeans became overly zealous in their efforts to convert Buddhist Siamese to Christianity. In 1688 the Siamese expelled the French from Ayutthaya and all but closed their doors to the West for the next 150 years.。

The primary threat to Ayutthayan sovereignty came not from Europe, however, but from Myanmar. In 1569 a force from the Burman state of Toungoo overran Ayutthaya and devastated the country for miles around. Led by Naresuan (ruled 1590–1605), Ayutthaya recovered its independence. Conflict with Myanmar persisted, however, and in the mid-18th century Burman armies once again captured Ayutthaya. This time the city was not to recover. Following the sacking of the city in 1767, the king and members of the royal family, along with thousands of captives, were deported to Myanmar. All Ayutthayan records were burned and its works of art destroyed.。

The Thon Buri and Early Bangkok periods。

A new era in Thai history began with the rise to power of Taksin, a military commander of great skill and charismatic personality who succeeded in pushing back the Burmans and seizing political power. In 1767 Taksin established his new capital at Thon Buri (Thonburi), on the opposite side of the Chao Phraya River from modern Bangkok. The new location was less accessible to the armies of Myanmar than Ayutthaya had been and was ideally situated for the conduct of seaborne trade and commerce. Capitalizing on the trade relations that Siam had already developed with China, Taksin encouraged Chinese merchants and craftsmen to take advantage of the economic opportunities offered by the site of his new capital. Large numbers of Chinese settled permanently in Siam, where their involvement in business and trade—coupled with the tax revenues that these activities provided—helped restore the country's devastated economy.。

Taksin not only recovered the territories that had formerly been part of the Ayutthayan empire but set out to extend Siamese control over new areas. His armies annexed part of what is now northeastern Cambodia and advanced up the Mekong River as far as present-day Vientiane, Laos. In the south they subdued the northern part of the Malay Peninsula, while to the north they pushed the Burmans out of the old northern Tai kingdom of Lan Na.。

Within a few years of seizing power, however, Taksin showed signs of serious mental instability, and in 1782 he was overthrown. He was succeeded by his former military commander, known by his official name of Chao Phraya (“Great Lord”) Chakri. As Rama I (ruled 1782–1809), he became the first king of the still-reigning Chakri (or Chakkri) dynasty.。

The early Chakri kings and a resurgent Siam。

One of Rama I's first acts was to move his capital across the Chao Phraya River to Bangkok, which at the time was still a small village. By the mid-19th century, Bangkok had become a city of some 400,000 people, swelled by the huge numbers of Chinese who had poured into Siam during these years. In addition to settling in Bangkok, the Chinese established trading settlements inland, some of which grew into small towns. The Chinese thus gained control over both the internal and foreign trade of the country.。

Myanmar continued to harass Siam throughout the early Chakri reigns. In 1785 it launched a massive invasion of the country, which was defeated only with great difficulty. Other lesser attacks followed. Not until the 1820s, when British encroachment on Myanmar forced Burman attention inward, was Siam able to relax its vigilance along its western borders. In the east Rama I and later Rama III (ruled 1824–51) reduced Khmer territories to vassal status, while in the south Rama III strengthened Siamese control over tributary states of the Malay Peninsula. Rama III also put down a major uprising in the north under Chao Anou, the young Lao ruler of the kingdom of Vien Chan (Vientiane). In 1827, Siamese armies razed and plundered Vientiane; thousands of Lao were taken prisoner and deported to central Siam.。

The early Chakri kings sought to restore the cultural heritage of Ayutthaya. New temples and palaces were built following the same styles and even using the same bricks that had embellished Ayutthaya. Rama I reestablished court rituals, issued comprehensive law codes and authoritative Buddhist texts, and helped revive the sangha by placing learned and pious monks in leading positions within the Buddhist hierarchy. The early Bangkok period was also one of great literary flowering. The Ramakian, the Thai version of the Indian epic Rāmāyaṇa, was set to verse during the reign of Rama I, and the popular Chinese novel San-kuo chih yen-i (Romance of the Three Kingdoms) was translated into Thai. Rama II (ruled 1809–24), an accomplished poet, was a noted patron of the arts; Sunthon Phu, Thailand's greatest poet, wrote some of his best-known works during Rama II's reign.。

Western influence also grew in mainland Southeast Asia during the early years of the 19th century, and with it came increasing Western pressures on Siam. When Britain declared war on Myanmar in 1824, Rama III feared that the British might also attack Siam. He subsequently agreed to sign the Burney Treaty (1826), which set conditions for the conduct of trade between the two countries.。

Mongkut and the opening of Siam to the West。

Demands for free trade and diplomatic representation in Siam accelerated with the British advances into Myanmar and Malaya and the opening of several Chinese ports following the first Opium War with China (1839–42). In 1855 Queen Victoria sent Sir John Bowring as her personal emissary to Siam to push for an end to all trade restrictions and to secure the rights to establish a British consulate in Bangkok and to set up separate law courts to try cases involving British subjects (extraterritoriality). The resulting Bowring Treaty (1855), in which Siam acceded to these demands, was followed shortly by similar treaties with other major European powers and with the United States. Although these treaties left Siam intact politically, they severely reduced the country's sovereignty and independence.。

The opening of Siam to world trade and the development of a cash economy brought major changes to the country. The Bowring Treaty deprived the Siamese government of large sums in customs duties, one of its major traditional sources of revenue, forcing it to increase taxes in their stead. Large areas of the Chao Phraya basin were planted in rice and other cash crops for the world market, while the need to transport goods from the interior to the port of Bangkok led to the growth of canal systems and marketing networks.。

The years following the Bowring Treaty were also marked by an increase in foreign influence in Siam. King Mongkut (Rama IV; ruled 1851–68) appointed several Western advisers and assistants to his court, including the Englishwoman Anna Leonowens, who became tutoress to his children. She later published her romanticized and inaccurate depiction of Mongkut's court. Foreign nationals began to take up long-term residence in Bangkok. Missionaries, although largely unsuccessful in converting Siamese to Christianity, set up the first Western medical facilities, secular schools, and printing presses in the country. Mongkut took great interest in the new Western ideas that were beginning to c。

杰弗逊，林肯，华盛顿总统简介

feel 感受

Darren Hayes

You teach me how to feel 你让我懂得如何感受。

It feels all right 这种感受正确。

There's nothing left to fear 离去没什么可怕。

Finding myself 找寻自己。

The further I go 走向远方。

Towards you 奔向你。

You teach me how to love 你让我懂得如何去爱。

Parts of myself 爱成为自身的部分。

I hated for so long 只怨如此漫长。

Loving myself 通过爱你。

Through loving you 才爱自己。

I no longer live like a man in the dark 我不再像黑暗中的男人。

Hiding all the pieces of my broken heart 藏起伤心的碎片。

Whereby I'm holding on 我将情归何处。

Whereby I'm holding on to you 情归何处找寻你。

You teach me to forgive 你让我懂得如何包容。

It feels all right 这种感受正确。

Compassion for your pain 牵挂你的痛。

Compassion for mine 牵挂我的痛。

The circle divides 缠绕渐渐散去。

no longer live like a man in the dark 我不再像黑暗中的男人。

Hiding all the pieces of my broken heart 藏起伤心的碎片。

Whereby I'm holding on 我将情归何处。

Whereby I'm holding on to you 情归何处找寻你。

Whereby I'm holding on 我将情归何处。

Whereby I'm holding on to you 情归何处找寻你。

高分翻译一段英语

杰弗逊 (Thomas Jefferson，1743--1826)。

(1801年3月4日--1809年3月3日 任美国总统)。

绰号:"人民的人".

出生于1743年4月13日,在沙德韦尔里弗吉尼亚.死于1826年7月4日,Monticello(弗吉尼亚附近)。

托马斯·杰弗逊是美国独立革命运动的一位积极领导者和组织者,著名的美国《独立宣言》的起草人.他前后从事政治活动近六十年之。

久,在美国人民的心目中是一位伟大的英雄。

杰弗逊的墓碑上刻着:"托马斯·杰弗逊美国《独立宣言》和弗吉尼亚宗教自由法的执笔人弗吉尼亚大学之父安葬于此".。

资产阶级民主派代表人物，共和党创始人。1773年创办弗吉尼亚的“通讯委员会”，宣传殖民地独立的思想。拥护天赋人权说，提出以革命反抗暴君。主张自由发展小农经济，反对奴隶制和议会选举中的财产资格限制。为大陆会议代表，参与起草《独立宣言》。曾任弗吉尼亚州州长、驻法公使、国务卿、副总统。总统任内，从法国购买路易斯安那，使美国国境扩张到与墨西哥接壤；推行“西渐政策”，颁布禁止输入黑奴的法令。晚年创立弗吉尼亚大学。

托马斯·杰弗逊 第一个死于贫困的是第三任美国总统托马斯·杰弗逊(Thomas Jefferson).他出身贵族家庭,属于富有阶层.后于1809年3月4日离任,死于1826年7月4日.巧合的是,他竟然与他的前任,政敌约翰·亚当斯(John Adams)几乎同时离开人世,虽然后来他们的私人关系已经和好.杰弗逊的墓碑上刻着:"托马斯·杰弗逊美国《独立宣言》和弗吉尼亚宗教自由法的执笔人弗吉尼亚大学之父安葬于此".。

杰弗逊8年的总统生涯,使他欠下了巨额债务,不得不另举债偿还以离开白宫.离开白宫之后,抵达蒙蒂塞洛.虽然拥有几间小作坊,和一个小农场,但入不敷出,尽管忍痛卖掉一些土地还债,仍然还有几乎5万美元的债务.于是还债就成为困扰这位离任总统的难解之结.他的大女儿与他一起生活,在给父亲的信中,玛霞写道:"我什么都可以忍受,就是不想看到你年纪这么大还要为债务而烦忧".。

1812年,英国人入侵焚烧了国会图书馆.杰弗逊将自己价值5万美元的藏书,以23500美元的低价卖给国会,偿还了将近一半的债务.尽管手头.在他的积极游说之下,州议会批准每年支付15000美元以资办学.杰弗逊到处募捐用于建校.1825年3月7日,大学开学,尽管只有30名学生.。

杰弗逊终于因为贫困兼之过度劳累而病倒,当杰弗逊经济极其困难的消息传拮据,他却从1816年起,以全部身心投入筹建弗吉尼亚大学的运作之中开之后,美国各地为之捐款16000美元,但这并不足以偿还他的债务并解决他的医疗费用.6月24日,他写下生平最后一封亲笔信,抱歉地推辞掉华盛顿纪念《独立宣言》五十周年纪念活动,他终于满足了活到7月4日的最后愿望,中午12时50分,离开人世,享年73岁.几个小时之后,另一位《独立宣言》起草人杰弗逊的前任总统亚当斯也撒手人寰.。

林肯

1809年2月12日，阿伯拉罕·林肯出生在肯塔基州哈丁县一个伐木工人的家庭，迫于生计，他先后干过店员、村邮务员、测量员和劈栅栏木条等多种工作。1834年，他当选为伊利诺斯州议员，才开始了他的政治生涯。

当时，美国奴隶制猖獗，1854年南部奴隶主竟派遣一批暴徒拥入堪萨斯州、用武力强制推行奴隶制度，引起了堪萨斯内战。这一事件激起了林肯的斗争热情，他明确地宣布了他要“为争取自由和废除奴隶制而斗争”的政治主张。1860年他当选为总统。南方奴隶主对林肯的政治主张是清楚的，他们当然不愿坐以待毙。1861年，南部7个州的代表脱离联邦，宣布独立，自组“南部联盟”，并于4月12日开始向联邦军队发起攻击，内战爆发初期，联邦军队一再失利。1862年9月22日，林肯宣布了亲自起草的具有伟大历史意义的文献——《解放黑奴宣言》草案（即后来的《解放宣言》），从此战争形势才开始发生了明显的变化，北部军队很快地由防御转入了进攻，1865年终于获得了彻底的胜利。

此时，林肯在美国人民中的声望已愈来愈高了，1864年，林肯再度当选为总统。但不幸的是，1865年4月14日晚，他在华盛顿福特剧院观剧时突然遭到枪击，次日清晨与世长辞。

革命导师马克思高度地评价林肯说，他是一个“不会被困难所吓倒，不会为成功所迷惑的人，他不屈不挠地迈向自己的伟大目标，而从不轻举妄动，他稳步向前，而从不倒退；……总之，他是一位达到了伟大境界而仍然保持自己优良品质的罕有的人物”。

人物姓名:乔治·华盛顿

历史上最有影响的100人 政治家。

乔治·华盛顿1732年生于美国弗吉尼亚的威克弗尔德庄园。他是一位富有的种植园主之子，二十岁时继承了一笔可观的财产。1753年到1758年期间华盛顿在军中服役，积极参加了法国人同印第安人之间的战争，从而获得了军事经验和威望；1758年解甲回到弗吉尼亚，不久便与一位带有四个孩子的富孀——玛莎·丹德利居·卡斯蒂斯结了婚（他没有亲生子女）。

华盛顿在随后的十五年中经营自己的家产，表现出了非凡的才能，1774年他被选为弗吉尼亚的一位代表去参加第一届大陆会议时，就已经成为美国殖民地中最大的富翁之一了。华盛顿不是一位主张独立的先驱者，但是1775年6月的第二届大陆会议（他是一位代表）却一致推选他来统率大陆部队。他军事经验丰富，家产万贯，闻名遐迩；他外貌英俊，体魄健壮（身高6英尺2时），指挥才能卓越，尤其他那坚韧不拔的性格使他成为统帅的理所当然的人选。在整个战争期间，他忠诚效劳，分文不取，廉洁奉公，堪称楷模。

华盛顿于1775年6月开始统率大陆军队，到1797年3月第二届总统任期期满，他的最有意义的贡献就是在这期间取得的。1799年12月在弗吉尼亚的温恩山，他在家中病逝。

首先，他在美国独立战争中是一位成功的军事领袖。但事实上他决非是一位军事天才，当然也决不能与亚历山大和凯撒一类的将军相提并论。他的成功至少有一半是由于同他对垒的英军将领的出人意料的无能，另一半才是由于他自己的才能。但是应记住几位其他美国将领均遭惨败，而华盛顿虽说打了几个小败仗而最终却赢得了战争的胜利。

其次，华盛顿是立宪会议主席。虽然他的思想对美国宪法的形成没有起重要的作用，但是他的支持者和他的名望对各州批准这部宪法却起了重大的作用。当时有一股强大的力量在反对新宪法，要不是华盛顿的影响，很难说这部宪法能实行得了。

再其次，华盛顿是美国第一任总统。美国有一位华盛顿这样德才兼备的人作为第一任总统是幸运的。翻开南美和非洲各国的历史，我们可以看到即使是一个以民主宪法为伊始的新国家，堕落成为军事专制国家也是易如反掌。华盛顿是一位坚定的领袖，他保持了国家的统一，但是却无永远把持政权的野心，既不想做国王，又不想当独裁者。他开创了主动让权的先例——一个至今美国仍然奉行的先例。

与当时的其他美国领袖如托马斯·杰弗逊、詹姆斯·麦迪逊、亚历山大·汉密尔顿等相比，乔治·华盛顿缺乏创新的精神和深刻的思想。但是他比所有这些雄才大略的人物都重要得多，无论在战争还是和平期间，他在行政领导方面都起着至关重要的作用，没有他任何政治运动都不会达到目的。对美国的形成，麦迪逊的贡献是重大的，而华盛顿的贡献几乎可以说是不可缺少的。

乔治·华盛顿在本册中的位置在很大程度上取决于人们怎样认识他给美国所带来的历史意义。要求一个当今的美国人对那种历史意义做出不偏不倚的评价自然是困难的。

虽然美国在二十世纪中叶具有甚至比鼎盛时期的罗马帝国还要大的军事力量和政治影响，但是其政权也许不会象罗马帝国那样行之久远。另一方面，美国所取得的技术成就有几项将来也会被其他民族视为有重大意义的，这一点看来是有目共睹的。例如飞机的发明和人类在月球上的登陆就代表了过去世世代代人们梦寐以求的成果；很难想象核武器的发明将来会被看成是无足轻重的成就。

既然乔治·华盛顿大体上可以和罗马的奥古斯都·凯撒相媲美，在本册中把他与奥古斯都排得很接近似乎不无道理。如果说把华盛顿排得略低了一点儿，那主要是因为他比奥古斯都领导的时间要短得多，还有许多其他人如托马斯·杰弗逊和詹姆斯·麦迪逊对美国的形成也起了重要的作用。但是华盛顿比亚历山大大帝和拿破仑这样的人物排得高些，因为他的功劳比起他们的来说是更加不可磨灭的。

独立宣言

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE。

In Congress, July 4, 1776,。

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA。

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.。

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.。

That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.。

That whenever any form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to the m shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.。

Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.。

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.。

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.。

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.。

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.。

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.。

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.。

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws of Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands .。

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.。

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.。

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance.。

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.。

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.。

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:。

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:。

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:。

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:。

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:。

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:。

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:。

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into t hese Colonies:。

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our Governments:。

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.。

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.。

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the Lives of our people.。

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the H ead of a civilized nation.。

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.。

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.。

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.。

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and sett lement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf t o the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.。

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Bri tain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. An d for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.。

JOHN HANCOCK, President。

Attested, CHARLES THOMSON, Secretary。

New Hampshire: JOSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON。

Massachusetts-Bay: SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY。

Rhode Island: STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY。

Connecticut: ROGER SHERMAN, SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, WILLIAM WILLIAMS, OLIVER WOLCOTT。

Georgia: BUTTON GWINNETT, LYMAN HALL, GEO. WALTON。

Maryland: SAMUEL CHASE, WILLIAM PACA, THOMAS STONE, CHARLES CARROLL OF CARROLLTON。

Virginia: GEORGE WYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE, THOMAS JEFFERSON, BENJAMIN HARRISON, THOMAS NELSON, JR., FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, CARTER BRAXTON.。

New York: WILLIAM FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON, FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS。

Pennsylvania: ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON, GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH, GEORGE TAYLOR, JAMES WILSON, GEORGE ROSS。

Delaware: CAESAR RODNEY, GEORGE READ, THOMAS M'KEAN。

North Carolina: WILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES, JOHN PENN。

South Carolina: EDWARD RUTLEDGE, THOMAS HEYWARD, JR., THOMAS LYNCH, JR., ARTHUR MIDDLETON。

New Jersey: RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, FRANCIS HOPKINS, JOHN HART, ABRAHAM CLARK。

Pennsylvania: Robert Morris， Benjamin Rush， Benjamin Franklin， John Morton， George Clymer， James Smith， George Taylor， James Wilson， George Ross。

Delaware: Caesar Rodney， George Read， Thomas McKean。

Maryland: Samuel Chase， William Paca， Thomas Stone， Charles Carroll of Carrollton。

Virginia: George Wythe， Richard Henry Lee， Thomas Jefferson， Benjamin Harrison， Thomas Nelson， Jr.， Francis Lightfoot Lee， Carter Braxton。

North Carolina: William Hooper， Joseph Hewes， John Penn。

South Carolina: Edward Rutledge， Thomas Heyward， Jr.， Thomas Lynch， Jr.， Arthur Middleton。

Georgia: Button Gwinnett， Lyman Hall， George Walton.。

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