postponement-100

关于丰田的管理 请分析一下其过人之处

Which Holidays to Celebrate, the Chinese or Western?。

The traditional Chinese holidays are an essential part of Chinese culture. Many holidays are associated with Chinese mythology and folklore tales. Among the popular Chinese festivals are Spring Festival, Lantern Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Tomb-Sweeping Festival and the Double Ninth Festival. Western holidays are becoming increasingly popular, while Chinese traditional holidays are being somewhat neglected. In my opinion, we ought to celebrate Chinese holidays instead of Western holidays. Chinese tradition should be preserved and promoted holidays at the same time teaching to let younger generation understand the meaning and significance behind each tradition. However, this does not discount the fact that we ought to be tolerant and open to learn and understand the Western holidays, like Christmas and Thanksgiving. These holidays have their own merits and significance. 。

The Changing Family Life in China。

Since the days of Confucius, however, a great deal has changed, especially so following since the creation of the People's Republic. In 1950, the new communist rulers introduced a new marriage law; it outlaws age-old practices like adultery, bigamy, the bartering of brides and dowry. 。

Family life in China has undergone equally radical changes in the post-Maoist era. The first single parent's club in China was recently set up in Beijing, reproductive services have been made legal for single women, telephone advice lines for gays have been set up in Shanghai, and the Divorce Club of Shanghai was launched on Valentine's Day this year. Chinese family life is increasingly reflecting trends in the West.。

One-Child Policy - A unique aspect of family life in China is the country's one-child policy, which has been enforced by the authorities since about 1978 and which restricts families in the cities to one child only. Nevertheless, the one-child policy has had a profound effect on the relationship between parents and children, the status of women, marital prospects, education, urban planning and even the design of cars. The one-child policy has succeeded in bringing down the birth rate from 26 percent to 8 percent a year. However, it has resulted in a serious sex-ratio imbalance in China today - 120 boys for every 100 girls born. 。

Infidelity - While families are spreading out to wherever work can be found, marital infidelity and especially cohabitation have become so predominant that the new marriage law of 2001 explicitly condemns bigamy and polygamy. 。

Postponement - Young educated urban professionals are postponing marriage until they can afford to buy an apartment and provide well for a child. The average marrying age is now 28 for men, 27 for women. Chinese citizens are required by law to care for their elderly parents, and being an only child adds to the pressure. Nuclear norm - The nuclear family is quickly becoming the norm, especially in the cities, where 60 percent of families consist only of parents and children. The first generations of offspring born under the one-child policy still have aunts and uncles and cousins, but many of their children will not.。

Change, not decline - All in all, family life in China is changing but is not by any means in decline. There is more emphasis on personal choice and freedom, more equality of the sexes, and there is an even stronger bond between parents and children than under the collective security of the Maoist era. Parents are prepared to make huge sacrifices for their children, partly because "always in the back of their mind is old age security", says Melody Lu. 。

It is the daughter-in-law that is usually the primary provider of care for the elderly has also changed the status and value of women within the family. And even though the trend is towards a smaller family unit, the proverbial Chinese family business is one institution that continues to thrive. Chinese family businesses account for one-third of the names on the Fortune-500 list of the world's biggest companies.。

求英国自由大宪章原文

丰田关键在于他的制造过程的管理。

能在一个成本范围做出质量很高的汽车。

被人们所广泛知道的就是他的 JIT的生产方式。

也就是just in time，也有人说是0库存。

当时二战后车辆因为便宜而且质量好行销全球。

美国的福特ford和通用汽车GM都很难招架。

下面我给你两篇文章详细介绍吧

文章1

==================================。

采用标准化运营制胜“客户化定制”

作者：Jayashankar M. Swaninathan。

引言

如今，几乎每个行业都采用了程度很高的“客户化定制”。丰田公司采取了多项措施，确保能在收到顾客订单的5天之内交付满足顾客特定需求的汽车1。摩托罗拉公司能在美国本土做到按订单生产（made-to-order），顾客能在确定购买的第二天收到心仪的手机。保洁公司的婴幼儿生产线曾经生产13种不同产品，满足从哇哇坠地的婴儿到蹒跚学步的幼儿的不同需要2。近年来，因特网广泛深入到了顾客端和业务端，将会大大提高客户化定制的程度。例如，最近有篇描述因特网对“客户化定制”影响的文章，说的是：香港的一个网站——idtown.com，顾客能以零售店标准手表的售价，从该网站买到任何一款客户化定制手表3。

以顾客为中心是一个很好的出发点，不过，这种商业环境给企业的供应链运作带来了巨大压力。有研究表明：不同的公司采取了不同的战略来应对产品种类日益增多的现象。例如，Pine4指出有四种不同的客户化定制策略供公司选择：客户化定制的交付、客户化定制的产品或服务设计、快速反应（利用供应链减少交付提前期）、产品模块化设计。Gilmore和Pine一起研究出一套大规模客户化定制的框架，可以用它来帮助识别可供选择的大规模客户化定制方式，并根据产品本身及其衍生品的不同进行分类5。这个框架十分重视顾客在产品生产和配送过程中的作用。分析了在大规模客户化定制中，顾客如何参与产品生产和配送过程，但是，它并没有指出顾客在运营方面所起的关键作用。本文的侧重点是：识别出公司采用大规模客户化定制策略以满足其业务需要的过程中所采取的关键运营战略。

过去的六年里，我们6深入分析了许多公司（包括IBM、3Com、Sun Microsystems、Agilent Technologies、US Filter、Visteon、Chrysler及 Perkin-Elmer）在管理大规模客户化定制过程中所采取的运营战略，并做了实证研究。另外，还有一些学者也分析了与产品品类管理相关的运营战略7。（可以参考Lee和Swaminathan关于运营战略方面的文献回顾。）8基于上述研究，我们掌握了大规模客户化定制方面的一些关键战略，并了解了每种战略最适用的运营情况。本文分析了企业在大规模客户化定制情况下可能面临的问题，同时，介绍了一套思维框架，以帮助企业评估每种备选战略的优劣。

客户化定制与可预测性

当制造企业具备高效且有效地交付种类繁多的产品的能力时，大规模客户化定制能为顾客和制造商带来双赢。做到这点，要求制造商在其运营方面，有能力管理需求与供应层面可能发生的重大可预测性变化。

需求可预测性

大规模客户化定制使得产品种类越来越多，致使企业很难做出需求预测。第一，产品层面的需求预测误差要大于一类产品的需求预测误差。例如，对于丰田公司来说，预测Camrys品牌的总体需求量要比预测Camrys LE的需求量简单得多。产品种类越多，总体需求预测也就越不起作用。第二，产品种类越多，产品之间的预测相关性就越大。例如，假设公司只卖一种产品A，那么，他只需要预测产品A的需求量。但是，如果公司再生产一种产品B，那么，公司既要预测两种产品的总需求量，还要分别预测产品A及产品B的需求量。假设总预测需求量是100，那么，对于产品A和产品B的需求可能是（50，50），或（99，1），或（20，80）等等。更糟糕的是，产品A的需求量和产品B的需求量之间可能存在特定关系——对产品A的需求量大，那么，对产品B的需求量就小。这种相关性使得预测越发困难。

图1：大规模客户化定制，不确定性与绩效。

因此，选择采取大规模定制策略将会导致产品种类的增加。由于很难预测每种产品的需求，种类越多，需求不确定性就越大。不确定增大，则要求提高库存水平，以确保相同的服务水平。

运营可预测性

相应地，产品种类的增加使得供应端的设计和实施也变得更为复杂。

• 达到所要求的服务水平所需要的库存水平的计算也变得更为复杂。例如，经理需要确定哪种产品是按订单生产，哪种产品按库存生产，以及在必要时刻，哪种产品可以替代哪种产品。

• 设备产能需求预测变得更为困难。由于产品相互混合，有些设备可能不怎么使用，而有些设备则产能不足，造成瓶颈。

• 零部件需求预测也变得更为困难。例如，一个大型PC制造商需要预测处理器、存储器、硬盘、显示器和其它外设等产品的需求量。他们发现很难计算预测量，但零部件之间具有相关性时，预测则变得更为不准确9。

• 零部件或组件的种类将大大增加，继续供应商的数目也会增加。不仅会增加供应商管理成本，还会该产品变更带来更大的复杂性。

• 大规模客户化定制还会缩短产品生命周期，那么，就需要多加注意新产品推出所涉及的问题，如筛选供应商、计算库存、营销及定价。

简而言之，产品多样性的增加，将会使得库存管理、设备产能管理、零部件管理、供应商管理、产品变更管理变得更为困难。企业实施大规模客户化定制的挑战就在于：最小化大规模客户化定制带来的运营方面的变更。针对大规模客户化定制的可预测性，存在一些可供选择的标准化策略，可以降低其负面影响。

产品及流程方面的模块化

客户化定制是否有效，产品及流程的模块化在其中起了重要作用。产品模块化指的是通过组合不同零部件或组件（模块）可以形成一件最终成品，顾客可以自由选择所偏爱的模块10。大规模客户化定制要求提供大量模块供顾客选择。例如，一台PC机可以由不同容量的存储器、不同频率的处理器、不同大小的硬盘、不同外设构成。制造商必须能够提供各个关键模块的多种选择，且可供选择的品种必须达到顾客要求。斯沃琪(Swatch)手表通过提供不同设计和颜色的表盘、表针、表带，向顾客提供了多种选择。非模块化的产品大概只有衬衣、裤子和外套了，因为顾客是按整体效果来评价这些产品的。不过，就是这些产品也有一定程度的模块化。例如，对于一件滑雪衫，其扣子和拉链可以有多种选择，吸引不同顾客的注意力11。

流程模块化指的是产品需要经过一系列独立操作的，可以存储半成品（即在制品），产品的不同就在于后续操作的不同。任何独立的装配过程也可以看成是模块化的。半导体芯片（尤其是应用程序集成电路）的制作过程是模块化的，因为芯片的类型取决于其经过的一系列独立操作。另一方面，石油提炼则是非模块化的，因为提炼过程一旦开始，存储半成品是非常困难的。

模块化产品不一定都是由模块化流程生产出来的。生物制药行业生产的是模块化产品，但是其流程是非模块化的。这类行业的不同产品可以通过添加不同成分而生产出来，使得这些产品成了模块化产品。但是，它们的生产过程是非模块化的，且无法存储半成品。

采用标准化制胜客户化定制的战略框架。

企业可以采用四种标准化方法来帮助实施大规模客户化定制策略，同时减少产品种类增加和可预测性降低所带来的负面影响。这些方法包括：部件标准化、流程标准化、产品标准化、采购标准化。

部件标准化

最简单也是最广为人知的标准化方法就是在零部件或生产子系统方面采用通用件(commonality)。通过在不同生产线上采用通用零部件，企业可以减少成本（源于规模经济），降低库存（源于风险分摊risk pooling），减少部件的种类，并且提高零部件需求量的预测准确度。不过，虽然公司从操作角度获益了，但是，由于同型装配效应（cannibalization effect），在顾客眼里，太多的通用件就是降低产品多样性。Robertson和Ulrich把内部通用件和外部通用件区分开来，并指出增加内部通用件并不一定会带来需求的同型装配效应12。例如，如果汽车制造商在高档车和低档车中采用同一种束线（铠装线），顾客并不会发现（因为束线被车内装饰掩饰了），这样就可以最小化同型装配效应。另外一方面，如果仪表板是标准模块的话，可能就会引起同型装配效应了。

流程标准化

流程标准化能够推迟产生差异的时间，或者说尽可能地延迟客户化定制，使前端流程标准化。流程标准化要求流程必须是可模块化的，可以存储半成品（在了解确切需求信息之前），并根据最终需求来定制产品。惠普公司通过增加由欧洲本地的配送中心所提供的操作指南和电源，把DeskJet打印机的差异性部分延迟到产品运到欧洲后再生产。这项措施让惠普减少了几百万美元的库存13。Swaminathan和Tayur研究了IBM RS6000机型的最终装配过程，结果表明存储半成品（称作“vanilla boxes”）可以减少库存，同时，减少反应时间，并提供更高程度的客户化定制15。

基于明确市场需求的流程标准化可以带来巨大好处，以贝纳通（Benetton）为例16。其毛衣生产过程主要有两个步骤：编织和染色。之前所采取的做法是先染色，然后需要需求编织。但是，需求的不确定性主要是顾客对颜色的选择偏好无法确定。因此，贝纳通决定先编织毛衣，但了解更多的需求信息之后，再染色。Lee和Tang深入地分析了上述案例12。Swaminathan和Tayur在US Filter公司的经验基础上，描述了在延迟策略中优化流程顺序所得到的模型、方法和认识18。他们评估了采用延迟策略的流水线的构造和提供并行操作的逆转渗透泵流水线的构造，考虑了它们的设计成本和操作效益。

汽车行业通过更改流程标准化（包括了设计平台）使得同一条生产线上可以生产各种不同的车型，这过程中并不需要对生产线对很大改动。例如，几年前，本田在同一条生产线上，重新设计了车型，从而生产出私家车、货车和运动型车。

流程标准化使得企业可以通过分摊不同产品之间的需求风险和更加有效地管理需求相关性，从而降低库存水平19。流程标准化的程度取决于很多因素，比如：产品类型、客户化定制发生在哪个子流程等。Lampel和Mintzberg描述了五种标准化——纯标准化、部分标准化、定制标准化、特制标准化和纯客户化制定——交付过程中的不同程度的客户化定制（设计、制造、装配、配送）20。

产品标准化

采取产品标准化之后，企业可以提供很多种最后产品，但是，利用80/20原则，只存储它们中的一部分21。这样，广告所涉及的产品种类要远远多余实际种类的平均水平。但顾客需要一种库存中没有的产品时，制造商可以选择按订单定制该产品，或者采取后向替代（downward substitution）策略，（以相同价格）提供部分模块优于顾客要求的产品。后向取代在半导体行业中非常普遍，但速度更慢/性能更差的芯片缺货时，就提供速度更快/性能更好的芯片（可接受范围内）给顾客。汽车租赁行业也是这样，当顾客要求的车没有了时，就提供更高端的或升级过的汽车给顾客。

这种方法减少了客户化定制致使产品种类剧增所带来的负面影响，既可以降低先有产品的管理成本，同时还可以减少产品生命周期内所需要的设计变更。Rao等人通过研究还发现这种方法还可以降低库存21。产品标准化的后向策略指的是当顾客定购缺货产品时，可以选择等待一段时间待定制产品生产出来后再购买，或者选择和他们要求的不完全一样的产品。无论是哪种选择，顾客的满意度将收到影响。

采购标准化

采购标准化是指在部件及设备的采购过程中充分发挥通用件的作用。假如一家公司提供的大量不同产品都是同一台设备生产出来的，或者是利用相同零部件组装出来的，则通过提供不同的最终产品，可以互相弥补需求的不确定性，同时，相应地采购设备和部件。

例如，考虑一家大型半导体芯片制造商生产特定应用程序集成电路（ASICs）的压片机。这种产品具有很高的客户特殊性，并且，由于技术日新月异，需求也很难预测。而且，制造这种压片机的加工设备非常昂贵（几千万美元）、提前期也很长，需要按订单制造。在这种设备上的投资会对资金和运营绩效产生很大影响。虽然顾客对最终产品的要求各不相同，但是每个压片机都需要在同一台加工设备上经历相同的操作。通过多种产品之间互相弥补需求的不确定性，有效地规划和采购设备，公司可以大大减小投资于错误设备所带来的风险。Swaminathan介绍了应用该种标准化方法的模型、方法和经验23。

采购标准化的另一个应用实例是PC行业，并且非常有效。PC机之间有许多通用的零部件，通用预测所有产品的总需求量，然后据此采购所需的零部件，可以企业就可以降低采购风险。

采购标准化的最大好处是更有效地利用产品资源，以及减少原材料或零部件的库存，因为不同最终产品之间可以分摊风险(risk pooling)。

选择标准化策略应考虑的问题

是否选择标准化策略取决于企业模块化其产品及流程的可能性。图2介绍 了四种可能性，以及什么情况下采取什么策略最合适。

• 如果产品及流程都可以模块化的，企业可以采取“流程标准化”来最优化其绩效。模块化的电子产品和计算机类产品，比如打印机、PC机，就是这类型产品。

• 如果流程是模块化的，但产品不是，如生产半导体压片机，企业可以采取“采购标准化”来最大化其收益。

部件标准化

最大化产品之间的通用零部件 流程标准化。

把客户化定制部分尽可能的推迟

产品标准化

保留极少量的产品库存 采购标准化。

协调产品之间的设备使用情况和通用件。

图2：标准化运营战略

• 如果产品是模块化的，而制造流程不是，那么，采用“部件标准化”可以使用通用件，是最有效的。

• 最后，如果产品和流程都是非模块化的，那么，企业可以采用“产品标准化”来有效管理其产品多样化。

显然，有许多实例表明：综合采用其中某些策略是最有效的。Swaminathan和Kukukyavuz研究了生物科技行业的一个实例，该公司既采用了流程标准化，也采用了产品标准化24。这个实例是这样的：通过把包装延迟到最后阶段而使流程标准化；通过最终产品之间可以相互替代卖给顾客，而使产品标准化。另外，一种标准化策略可能需要同时采取另一种标准化策略。例如，部件标准化要求同时采取采购标准化及流程标准化策略（延迟）。

除了考虑产品及流程的特性之外（产品及流程可否模块化很大程度上决定了企业能够采取什么策略），企业还需要考虑其它重要因素：

• 产品设计——采用部件标准化则意味着企业需要改变其产品设计方式。重新设计现有产品，是耗费成本的过时做法。如果基于部件标准化策略，重新设计一类产品，那么，企业得好好考虑一下如何管理产品设计。

• 流程变更——无论采用哪种标准化策略，设计、采购、生产、配送等方面都需要进行相应变更。当权衡选择哪种标准化策略时，应该考虑这种变更成本。有时，变更可能不是行动上的，而是运营决策方面的。例如，如果企业采用采购标准化策略，那么，聚集变得很重要，决策必须是经过集中讨论而做出的。同样，如果采用流程标准化，那么，员工培训得成本可能会很高，并且很难测评出具体是多少。

• 外包程度——对于企业来说，不仅决定外包多少产品及供应链方面的业务出去很重要25，而且，对应于这种外包决策，选择哪种标准化策略一样很重要。例如，戴尔（Dell）通过让供应商在关键零部件上面采取及时（JIT）送货策略，把零部件相关的业务都外包给了供应商，而自己则专注做好最终装配这一内部操作。尽管这样做降低了内部操作的复杂性，但需要推出新产品或建立新开发平台时，可能会遇到更多挑战。

小结

产品多样化对于很多行业来说越来越重要。随着产品多样化的增加，不确定性及许多运营方面的挑战也接踵而至。可以采用不同的标准化策略来应对这些挑战——产品标准化、部件标准化、采购标准化及流程标准化。企业应用这些策略的能力取决于多方面：一是企业产品及流程的模块化程度，二是企业想为顾客提供什么样的服务，还有就是与标准化有关的成本。本篇文章提供得框架可以帮助读者做出相应决策。

参考文献：

1. R.L. Simison, "Toyota Develops a Way to Make a Car within Five Days of a Customer Order," The Wall Street Journal, August 6, 1999.。

2. J.B. Pine, Mass Customization: The New Frontier in Business Competition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1993).。

3. FT. McCarthy, "All Yours," The Economist. April 1, 2000.。

4. Pine, op. cit.。

5. J. H. Gilmore and J. B. Pine, "The Four Faces of Mass Customization," Harvard Business Review. 15I\ (January/February 1997): 91-101.。

6. J.M. Swaminathan and S.R. Tayur, "Managing Broader Product Lines through Delayed Differentiation using Vanilla Boxes," Management Science, 44/12.2 (December 1998): S161-S172; J.M. Swaminathan and S.R. Tayur, "Managing Design of Assembly Sequences for Product Lines that Delay Product Differentiation," IIE Transactions, 31/4 (1999): 1015-1026; J.M. Swaminatiian. "Tool Capacity Planning for Semiconductor Fabrication Facilities under Demand Uncertainty," European Journal of Operational Research. 120/2 (2000): 545-558.。

7. H.L. Lee, "Effective Inventory and Service Management through Product and Process Redesign," Operations Research. 44/1 (1996): 151-159; H.L. Lee and CS. Tang, "Modeling the Costs and Benefits of Delayed Product Differentiation," Management Science, 43/1 (1997): 40-53; H.L. Lee and CS. Tang, "Variability Reduction through Operations Reversal," Management Science. 44/2 (1998): 162-172.。

8. H.L. Lee and J.M. Swaminathan, "Design for Postponement," Working Paper, 2001.。

9. R. Srinivasan and J.M. Swaminathan, "Managing Configurable Products in the。

Computer Industry: Planning and Coordination Issues," Sadhana: Academy Proceedings in Engineering Sciences. 22/1 (February 1997): 33-43.。

10. Note that the above definition of a modular product is different from earlier definition given by Ulrich where modularity in products was mainly defined in terms。

of independence of the sub-assembly in terms of functionality whereas here we have defined modularity in terms of customer preferences. K.T. Ulrich, "The Role of Produa Architecture in the Manufacturing Firm," Research Policy. 24 (1995): 419-440.。

11. M.L. Fisher, J.H. Hammond, W.R. Obermeyer, and A. Raman, "Making Supply Meet in an Uncertain World," Harvard Business Review, 72/3 (1994): 83-89.。

12. D. Robertson and K.T. Ulrich, "Planning for Product Platfonns," Sloan Management Review, 39/4 (Summer 1998): 19-31.。

13. Hewlett Packard Case. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 1994.。

14. Lee and Tang (1997), op. cit.。

15. Swaminatlian and Tayur (1998), op. cit.。

16. Benetton Case, Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge, MA, 1985.。

17. Lee and Tang (1998), op, cit.。

18. Swaminathan and Tayur (1999), op. cit.。

19. Swaminathan and Tayur (1998), op. cit.。

20. J. Lampel and H. Mintzberg, "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management Review. 38/1 (Fall 1996): 21-30.。

21. Kandare et al. discuss alternative approaches to customization namely product, process, and transaction customization. Product standardization described here is identified as a form of adaptive product customization in tfieir approach. G. Kandare, A. Kohorn, C Mar, and M. Milby, "Operations Strategy in the 9O's and Beyond: Mass Customization," Technical Report. MIT Sloan School of Management, 1999.。

22. U.S. Ran, J.M. Swaminathan, and J. Zhang, "A Multi-Product Inventory Problem。

wiih Sci-up Costs and Downward Substitution," MSOM Conference Proceedings,。

Seattle, 1998, pp. 149-154.。

23. Swaminathan (2000), op. cit.。

24. J.M. Swaminaihan and S. Kukukyavuz, "A Perishable Inventory Problem with Postponement and Substitution." Working Paper, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 2000.。

25. K. Ulrich, R. Taylor, M. Fisher, and D. Reibstein, Managing Product Variety. Product Variety Management: Research Advances (Norwell, MA: Kluwer Publishers, 1998), pp, 178-205.。

中文翻译成英文

The Magna Carta。

(The Great Charter)。

1215

Preamble: John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, and count of Anjou, to the archbishop, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciaries, foresters, sheriffs, stewards, servants, and to all his bailiffs and liege subjects, greetings. Know that, having regard to God and for the salvation of our soul, and those of all our ancestors and heirs, and unto the honor of God and the advancement of his holy Church and for the rectifying of our realm, we have granted as underwritten by advice of our venerable fathers, Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England and cardinal of the holy Roman Church, Henry, archbishop of Dublin, William of London, Peter of Winchester, Jocelyn of Bath and Glastonbury, Hugh of Lincoln, Walter of Worcester, William of Coventry, Benedict of Rochester, bishops; of Master Pandulf, subdeacon and member of the household of our lord the Pope, of brother Aymeric (master of the Knights of the Temple in England), and of the illustrious men William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, William, earl of Salisbury, William, earl of Warenne, William, earl of Arundel, Alan of Galloway (constable of Scotland), Waren Fitz Gerold, Peter Fitz Herbert, Hubert De Burgh (seneschal of Poitou), Hugh de Neville, Matthew Fitz Herbert, Thomas Basset, Alan Basset, Philip d'Aubigny, Robert of Roppesley, John Marshal, John Fitz Hugh, and others, our liegemen.。

1. In the first place we have granted to God, and by this our present charter confirmed for us and our heirs forever that the English Church shall be free, and shall have her rights entire, and her liberties inviolate; and we will that it be thus observed; which is apparent from this that the freedom of elections, which is reckoned most important and very essential to the English Church, we, of our pure and unconstrained will, did grant, and did by our charter confirm and did obtain the ratification of the same from our lord, Pope Innocent III, before the quarrel arose between us and our barons: and this we will observe, and our will is that it be observed in good faith by our heirs forever. We have also granted to all freemen of our kingdom, for us and our heirs forever, all the underwritten liberties, to be had and held by them and their heirs, of us and our heirs forever.。

2. If any of our earls or barons, or others holding of us in chief by military service shall have died, and at the time of his death his heir shall be full of age and owe "relief", he shall have his inheritance by the old relief, to wit, the heir or heirs of an earl, for the whole barony of an earl by £100; the heir or heirs of a baron, £100 for a whole barony; the heir or heirs of a knight, 100s, at most, and whoever owes less let him give less, according to the ancient custom of fees.。

3. If, however, the heir of any one of the aforesaid has been under age and in wardship, let him have his inheritance without relief and without fine when he comes of age.。

4. The guardian of the land of an heir who is thus under age, shall take from the land of the heir nothing but reasonable produce, reasonable customs, and reasonable services, and that without destruction or waste of men or goods; and if we have committed the wardship of the lands of any such minor to the sheriff, or to any other who is responsible to us for its issues, and he has made destruction or waster of what he holds in wardship, we will take of him amends, and the land shall be committed to two lawful and discreet men of that fee, who shall be responsible for the issues to us or to him to whom we shall assign them; and if we have given or sold the wardship of any such land to anyone and he has therein made destruction or waste, he shall lose that wardship, and it shall be transferred to two lawful and discreet men of that fief, who shall be responsible to us in like manner as aforesaid.。

5. The guardian, moreover, so long as he has the wardship of the land, shall keep up the houses, parks, fishponds, stanks, mills, and other things pertaining to the land, out of the issues of the same land; and he shall restore to the heir, when he has come to full age, all his land, stocked with ploughs and wainage, according as the season of husbandry shall require, and the issues of the land can reasonable bear.。

6. Heirs shall be married without disparagement, yet so that before the marriage takes place the nearest in blood to that heir shall have notice.。

7. A widow, after the death of her husband, shall forthwith and without difficulty have her marriage portion and inheritance; nor shall she give anything for her dower, or for her marriage portion, or for the inheritance which her husband and she held on the day of the death of that husband; and she may remain in the house of her husband for forty days after his death, within which time her dower shall be assigned to her.。

8. No widow shall be compelled to marry, so long as she prefers to live without a husband; provided always that she gives security not to marry without our consent, if she holds of us, or without the consent of the lord of whom she holds, if she holds of another.。

9. Neither we nor our bailiffs will seize any land or rent for any debt, as long as the chattels of the debtor are sufficient to repay the debt; nor shall the sureties of the debtor be distrained so long as the principal debtor is able to satisfy the debt; and if the principal debtor shall fail to pay the debt, having nothing wherewith to pay it, then the sureties shall answer for the debt; and let them have the lands and rents of the debtor, if they desire them, until they are indemnified for the debt which they have paid for him, unless the principal debtor can show proof that he is discharged thereof as against the said sureties.。

10. If one who has borrowed from the Jews any sum, great or small, die before that loan be repaid, the debt shall not bear interest while the heir is under age, of whomsoever he may hold; and if the debt fall into our hands, we will not take anything except the principal sum contained in the bond.。

11. And if anyone die indebted to the Jews, his wife shall have her dower and pay nothing of that debt; and if any children of the deceased are left under age, necessaries shall be provided for them in keeping with the holding of the deceased; and out of the residue the debt shall be paid, reserving, however, service due to feudal lords; in like manner let it be done touching debts due to others than Jews.。

12. No scutage not aid shall be imposed on our kingdom, unless by common counsel of our kingdom, except for ransoming our person, for making our eldest son a knight, and for once marrying our eldest daughter; and for these there shall not be levied more than a reasonable aid. In like manner it shall be done concerning aids from the city of London.。

13. And the city of London shall have all it ancient liberties and free customs, as well by land as by water; furthermore, we decree and grant that all other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports shall have all their liberties and free customs.。

14. And for obtaining the common counsel of the kingdom anent the assessing of an aid (except in the three cases aforesaid) or of a scutage, we will cause to be summoned the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons, severally by our letters; and we will moveover cause to be summoned generally, through our sheriffs and bailiffs, and others who hold of us in chief, for a fixed date, namely, after the expiry of at least forty days, and at a fixed place; and in all letters of such summons we will specify the reason of the summons. And when the summons has thus been made, the business shall proceed on the day appointed, according to the counsel of such as are present, although not all who were summoned have come.。

15. We will not for the future grant to anyone license to take an aid from his own free tenants, except to ransom his person, to make his eldest son a knight, and once to marry his eldest daughter; and on each of these occasions there shall be levied only a reasonable aid.。

16. No one shall be distrained for performance of greater service for a knight's fee, or for any other free tenement, than is due therefrom.。

17. Common pleas shall not follow our court, but shall be held in some fixed place.。

18. Inquests of novel disseisin, of mort d'ancestor, and of darrein presentment shall not be held elsewhere than in their own county courts, and that in manner following; We, or, if we should be out of the realm, our chief justiciar, will send two justiciaries through every county four times a year, who shall alone with four knights of the county chosen by the county, hold the said assizes in the county court, on the day and in the place of meeting of that court.。

19. And if any of the said assizes cannot be taken on the day of the county court, let there remain of the knights and freeholders, who were present at the county court on that day, as many as may be required for the efficient making of judgments, according as the business be more or less.。

20. A freeman shall not be amerced for a slight offense, except in accordance with the degree of the offense; and for a grave offense he shall be amerced in accordance with the gravity of the offense, yet saving always his "contentment"; and a merchant in the same way, saving his "merchandise"; and a villein shall be amerced in the same way, saving his "wainage" if they have fallen into our mercy: and none of the aforesaid amercements shall be imposed except by the oath of honest men of the neighborhood.。

21. Earls and barons shall not be amerced except through their peers, and only in accordance with the degree of the offense.。

22. A clerk shall not be amerced in respect of his lay holding except after the manner of the others aforesaid; further, he shall not be amerced in accordance with the extent of his ecclesiastical benefice.。

23. No village or individual shall be compelled to make bridges at river banks, except those who from of old were legally bound to do so.。

24. No sheriff, constable, coroners, or others of our bailiffs, shall hold pleas of our Crown.。

25. All counties, hundred, wapentakes, and trithings (except our demesne manors) shall remain at the old rents, and without any additional payment.。

26. If anyone holding of us a lay fief shall die, and our sheriff or bailiff shall exhibit our letters patent of summons for a debt which the deceased owed us, it shall be lawful for our sheriff or bailiff to attach and enroll the chattels of the deceased, found upon the lay fief, to the value of that debt, at the sight of law worthy men, provided always that nothing whatever be thence removed until the debt which is evident shall be fully paid to us; and the residue shall be left to the executors to fulfill the will of the deceased; and if there be nothing due from him to us, all the chattels shall go to the deceased, saving to his wife and children their reasonable shares.。

27. If any freeman shall die intestate, his chattels shall be distributed by the hands of his nearest kinsfolk and friends, under supervision of the Church, saving to every one the debts which the deceased owed to him.。

28. No constable or other bailiff of ours shall take corn or other provisions from anyone without immediately tendering money therefor, unless he can have postponement thereof by permission of the seller.。

29. No constable shall compel any knight to give money in lieu of castle-guard, when he is willing to perform it in his own person, or (if he himself cannot do it from any reasonable cause) then by another responsible man. Further, if we have led or sent him upon military service, he shall be relieved from guard in proportion to the time during which he has been on service because of us.。

30. No sheriff or bailiff of ours, or other person, shall take the horses or carts of any freeman for transport duty, against the will of the said freeman.。

31. Neither we nor our bailiffs shall take, for our castles or for any other work of ours, wood which is not ours, against the will of the owner of that wood.。

32. We will not retain beyond one year and one day, the lands those who have been convicted of felony, and the lands shall thereafter be handed over to the lords of the fiefs.。

33. All kydells for the future shall be removed altogether from Thames and Medway, and throughout all England, except upon the seashore.。

34. The writ which is called praecipe shall not for the future be issued to anyone, regarding any tenement whereby a freeman may lose his court.。

35. Let there be one measure of wine throughout our whole realm; and one measure of ale; and one measure of corn, to wit, "the London quarter"; and one width of cloth (whether dyed, or russet, or "halberget"), to wit, two ells within the selvedges; of weights also let it be as of measures.。

36. Nothing in future shall be given or taken for a writ of inquisition of life or limbs, but freely it shall be granted, and never denied.。

37. If anyone holds of us by fee-farm, either by socage or by burage, or of any other land by knight's service, we will not (by reason of that fee-farm, socage, or burgage), have the wardship of the heir, or of such land of his as if of the fief of that other; nor shall we have wardship of that fee-farm, socage, or burgage, unless such fee-farm owes knight's service. We will not by reason of any small serjeancy which anyone may hold of us by the service of rendering to us knives, arrows, or the like, have wardship of his heir or of the land which he holds of another lord by knight's service.。

38. No bailiff for the future shall, upon his own unsupported complaint, put anyone to his "law", without credible witnesses brought for this purposes.。

39. No freemen shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised or exiled or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him nor send upon him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land.。

40. To no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay, right or justice.。

41. All merchants shall have safe and secure exit from England, and entry to England, with the right to tarry there and to move about as well by land as by water, for buying and selling by the ancient and right customs, quit from all evil tolls, except (in time of war) such merchants as are of the land at war with us. And if such are found in our land at the beginning of the war, they shall be detained, without injury to their bodies or goods, until information be received by us, or by our chief justiciar, how the merchants of our land found in the land at war with us are treated; and if our men are safe there, the others shall be safe in our land.。

42. It shall be lawful in future for anyone (excepting always those imprisoned or outlawed in accordance with the law of the kingdom, and natives of any country at war with us, and merchants, who shall be treated as if above provided) to leave our kingdom and to return, safe and secure by land and water, except for a short period in time of war, on grounds of public policy- reserving always the allegiance due to us.。

43. If anyone holding of some escheat (such as the honor of Wallingford, Nottingham, Boulogne, Lancaster, or of other escheats which are in our hands and are baronies) shall die, his heir shall give no other relief, and perform no other service to us than he would have done to the baron if that barony had been in the baron's hand; and we shall hold it in the same manner in which the baron held it.。

44. Men who dwell without the forest need not henceforth come before our justiciaries of the forest upon a general summons, unless they are in plea, or sureties of one or more, who are attached for the forest.。

45. We will appoint as justices, constables, sheriffs, or bailiffs only such as know the law of the realm and mean to observe it well.。

46. All barons who have founded abbeys, concerning which they hold charters from the kings of England, or of which they have long continued possession, shall have the wardship of them, when vacant, as they ought to have.。

47. All forests that have been made such in our time shall forthwith be disafforsted; and a similar course shall be followed with regard to river banks that have been placed "in defense" by us in our time.。

48. All evil customs connected with forests and warrens, foresters and warreners, sheriffs and their officers, river banks and their wardens, shall immediately by inquired into in each county by twelve sworn knights of the same county chosen by the honest men of the same county, and shall, within forty days of the said inquest, be utterly abolished, so as never to be restored, provided always that we previously have intimation thereof, or our justiciar, if we should not be in England.。

49. We will immediately restore all hostages and charters delivered to us by Englishmen, as sureties of the peace of faithful service.。

50. We will entirely remove from their bailiwicks, the relations of Gerard of Athee (so that in future they shall have no bailiwick in England); namely, Engelard of Cigogne, Peter, Guy, and Andrew of Chanceaux, Guy of Cigogne, Geoffrey of Martigny with his brothers, Philip Mark with his brothers and his nephew Geoffrey, and the whole brood of the same.。

51. As soon as peace is restored, we will banish from the kingdom all foreign born knights, crossbowmen, serjeants, and mercenary soldiers who have come with horses and arms to the kingdom's hurt.。

52. If anyone has been dispossessed or removed by us, without the legal judgment of his peers, from his lands, castles, franchises, or from his right, we will immediately restore them to him; and if a dispute arise over this, then let it be decided by the five and twenty barons of whom mention is made below in the clause for securing the peace. Moreover, for all those possessions, from which anyone has, without the lawful judgment of his peers, been disseised or removed, by our father, King Henry, or by our brother, King Richard, and which we retain in our hand (or which as possessed by others, to whom we are bound to warrant them) we shall have respite until the usual term of crusaders; excepting those things about which a plea has been raised, or an inquest made by our order, before our taking of the cross; but as soon as we return from the expedition, we will immediately grant full justice therein.。

53. We shall have, moreover, the same respite and in the same manner in rendering justice concerning the disafforestation or retention of those forests which Henry our father and Richard our broter afforested, and concerning the wardship of lands which are of the fief of another (namely, such wardships as we have hitherto had by reason of a fief which anyone held of us by knight's service), and concerning abbeys founded on other fiefs than our own, in which the lord of the fee claims to have right; and when we have returned, or if we desist from our expedition, we will immediately grant full justice to all who complain of such things.。

54. No one shall be arrested or imprisoned upon the appeal of a woman, for the death of any other than her husband.。

55. All fines made with us unjustly and against the law of the land, and all amercements, imposed unjustly and against the law of the land, shall be entirely remitted, or else it shall be done concerning them according to the decision of the five and twenty barons whom mention is made below in the clause for securing the pease, or according to the judgment of the majority of the same, along with the aforesaid Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, if he can be present, and such others as he may wish to bring with him for this purpose, and if he cannot be present the business shall nevertheless proceed without him, provided。

有哪位大侠帮我翻译一段工作报告内容,周一开会急用!!!

“记忆”翻译成英文:Memory ；

Memory翻译成中文:记忆; 回忆; 记忆力; 脑子里保存的印象; 提醒者; 计算机信息存库里最快而且主要的区域 (计算机用语)；

Agree翻译中文：赞成...的意见; 同意; 与...一致; 同意; 对...达成协议; 承认; 接受；

“肯”翻译英文：agree, be willing, consent, be ready。

具体的翻译要根据语境而定。

给我些关于法庭上面的资料 最好是中英文

1, has not been our final confirmation, the factory orders are expected by the date of shipment delivery to our stockpiles caused great pressure and back pressure section (for example, generated by the project 80M10 Runze months of inventory). Because most of China Project arrival phases contract requirements, and often happen in construction delay, and therefore we can not order specific date of shipment.。

The solution: to strengthen communication with the factory, in the order is expected to highlight the date and the first three months of notice required goods factory production and shipping arrangements.。

2, the factory failed to post in the shipping container capacity due to causes such as rejection of goods to notify us promptly, and did not take the initiative to coordinate and solve problems, lead us to delay in delivery and customer default. (For example, × × ×, eventually assumed the attitude of the management costs of the expensive air transport.)。

Solution: I hope that the factory is expected to be able to pre-shipment packing quantity, such as should be expected to dump goods to notify us promptly adjust quantity shipments. (For example, in a number of orders for both ordering and inventory ordering agents, it is necessary to reduce inventory shipments appropriate, give priority to ensuring the delivery agent.)。

3, because of the postponement of the project progress as well as by the global financial crisis, will lead to the buyer for payment delay and the U.S. back to paragraph credibility, the results are no longer shipping plants, and ultimately to the payment terms we can not better agents Regular supply, thus affecting the company's good image.。

The solution: First of all, all employees will be doing its best to receivables; followed the next order we specify which agents are paid the deposit of the goods, I hope, based in shipments from the overall consideration, the priority order to ensure that agents can be expected hair; Third, to expand the market agents, we should be good sales for some models appropriate inventory preparation, so I hope to be the headquarters of the inventory of goods in support of off period be extended.。

4, because of fluctuations in international exchange rates, the euro and U.S. dollar exchange rate will be higher than the orders of the bank rate at the time, making orders for the exchange rate lost its original meaning.。

Solution: the factory be able to timely and in accordance with international currency markets adjust to changes in the exchange rate of orders, or consent orders in the bank exchange rate higher than the exchange rate, exchange rate of the implementation of orders, otherwise the implementation of the bank rate.。

5, because of U.S. "special equipment manufacturing license" has expired and has not continued to do, we're unable to sell more than 100kW boiler. However, U.S. stocks have 4 high-power equipment can not handle, resulting in enormous waste.。

The solution: We still expect to be able to agree to apply for the headquarters permits, on the one hand, can sell off inventory, on the other hand, more than 100kW boiler still has a potential market demand. Because if there is a permit, we have the opportunity to strive, on the contrary, we have zero chance of that!。

原文地址：http://www.qianchusai.com/postponement-100.html