hydrofluorocarbons

大气臭氧层的阅读理解答案

按照氟利昂为饱和烃（主要指甲烷、乙烷和丙烷）的卤代物的总称这一定义，氟里昂制冷剂大致分为4类：

CFC（Chlorofluorocarbon，或写作CFCs，氟氯烃）类，组成元素氟F、氯Cl、碳C。由于对臭氧层的破坏作用最大，被《蒙特利尔议定书》列为一类受控物质；

HCFC（Chlorodifuoromethane，或写作HCFCs、HCF，氢氯氟烃）类物质组成元素氢H、氯Cl、氟F、碳C，由于其臭氧层破坏系数仅仅是R11的百分之几，因此被视为CFC类物质的最重要的过渡性替代物质；

HFC（Hydrofluorocarbon，氢氟烃）类的组成元素氢H、氟F、碳C，臭氧层破坏系数为0，但是气候变暖潜能值很高。在《蒙特利尔议定书》没有规定其使用期限，在《联合国气候变化框架公约》京都议定书中定性为温室气体；

最后一类是混合制冷剂，如R401A，为R22、R152a、R124分别以53、13、34的质量比例混合。共沸混合是无数混合物中的特例，绝大部分的混合物都是非共沸混合物。

（注：也有人认为混合制冷剂不是氟利昂，而是多种氟利昂的混合物。）

高手进 将下面的话翻译成英文

臭氧有望在40年内恢复，如果入选高考科技文阅读，有什么考点？

世界气象组织在瑞士日内瓦最新的会议指出，全球通过逐步淘汰对臭氧层有害的化学品，已经起到了有效的作用，臭氧层有希望在40年内逐步恢复。这件事情成为了今天全世界科技领域的头条，类似这样的科技界大头条很容易入选到高考英语阅读C、D篇科技文阅读中。如果相关话题的文章考出来，有可能会涉及到哪些影响我们理解的考点呢？

今天我就节选了一篇来自于CBSNews的科技报道，以此作为切入点，给大家讲一下，类似这种话题的文章，里面可能包含了一些重要考点。

标题解析：

Earth's ozone layer on track to recover within 40 years, U.N. experts say。

标题翻译：联合国专家称，地球臭氧层有望在40年内恢复。

① Earth's ozone layer，意思是地球臭氧层，ozone 是臭氧的意思，建议记忆。

② be on track to，意思是步入正轨、做事情对头，这个短语不用死记硬背，因为track是轨道的意思，只要你知道这个单词的意思，基本上你也能猜出个大概。

③ 臭氧层恢复用的是recover，表“恢复”的动词非常多，这里我们要专门记住。

文章大意：

The agency said the Montreal Protocol, a landmark global ①agreement to ②phase out harmful chemicals, has significantly ③aided the recovery of the ozone layer. The Montreal Protocol ④entered into force in 1989 and regulates nearly 100 manmade chemicals that damage the ozone layer.。

该机构表示，《蒙特利尔议定书》是一项具有里程碑意义的全球协议，旨在逐步淘汰有害化学物质，极大地帮助了臭氧层的恢复。 《蒙特利尔议定书》于 1989 年生效，对近 100 种破坏臭氧层的人造化学品进行了管制。

"The ⑤impact the Montreal Protocol has had on climate change mitigation cannot be overstressed," said Meg Seki, the executive secretary of the U.N. Environment Programme's Ozone Secretariat. "Over the last 35 years, the Protocol has become a true champion for the environment."。

“鉴于蒙特利尔议定书对减缓气候变化的影响，怎么加强执行都不为过，”联合国环境规划署臭氧秘书处执行秘书梅格塞基说。 “在过去的 35 年里，该议定书已成为真正的环境卫士。”

The U.N. also noted that a 2016 ⑥amendment to the measure, the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, is ⑦helping to significantly reduce climate change. The amendment ⑧requires global powers to reduce the production and consumption of many hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs. While these types of chemicals don't directly affect the ozone layer, they're considered potent ⑨greenhouse gases.。

联合国还指出，该措施的 2016 年修正案，即蒙特利尔议定书的基加利修正案，正在显著帮助减少气候变化。 该修正案要求全球力量减少多种氢氟碳化合物 (HFC) 的生产和消费。 虽然这些类型的化学物质不直接影响臭氧层，但它们被认为是强效温室气体。

考点解析：

① 短语 agreement to do，意思是“目的是……协议”

② 短语 phase out，单词初高中就学过，但是这个短语是考研级别的短语，意思是“逐步废除”。

③ aid sth 这里是aid做及物动词时的用法，同样的句子让大家自己去写，大家有可能只会用help。这个词是高中难度的单词，相关的词组短语也很多，但是尝试去用的考生却比较少，属于高级用法。

④ 短语 enter into force，意思是“生效”。这里考察的是enter into+抽象名词的用法，有几十个变种。高考常考的变种见于《高中英语1.5万考点》中高频部分，52页第53个考点。

⑤ 短语 impact on sth，意思是“对……的巨大影响”，是四六级和考研范围内的常考短语，在这个短语中间，文章插了一个不带that的定语从句，没有背过这个短语的同学，可能这个句子根本看不懂是什么意思。

⑥ 名词性短语 amendment to sth ，考研级别的短语，意思是“……的修正案”。

⑦ 初中短语 help to do，意思是帮助做某事，to 经常可以省略在这里没有省略。

⑧ 高考常考短语 require sb to do sth，意思是“要求……做某事”，见于《高中英语1.5万考点》中高频部分，58页第20个考点。这里的global powers，也是一个名词性短语，表示国际社会的力量，其实指的是人而不是物。

⑨ 名词性短语 greenhouse gases，这个短语其实高考考了很多次，不需要死记硬背，就是字面的意思可以理解，“温室气体”的意思。这里要注意气体加了es，它是可数的，因为温室气体有很多种。

谁可以用英文告诉我能源与气候变暖的关系？？？

The past 10 years, involved in many of Earth's environmental problems, the most proper concern of the environment gradually warming the atmosphere, the so-called greenhouse effect. It brings human beings are many hazards, such as the type of harsh weather, changes in the ecological system, species extinction and the loss of biodiversity, reduction of drinking water, sea-level rise caused by land and reduce the average rise in temperature, etc. . 。

The greenhouse effect is not only related to global climate, environmental problems, human society is also related to the production, consumption, lifestyle and living space of the social and economic development in various fields of the major issues. 。

Despite a global climate change are many reasons for, but the large number of studies show that greenhouse and the main greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions directly related to the large number. 。

At present the so-called six main GHG, in addition to carbon dioxide (CO2), methane also included (CH4), nitrogen oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCS), perfluorocarbons hydrocarbons (PFCS) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6). After the three are often referred to as fluoride hydrofluorocarbons (CFCS) [1] a lot of these gases can absorb the surface of the Earth's heat radiation, so that the surface temperature increases arising from the greenhouse effect. In all of GHG on the global impact of climate change is the biggest carbon-rich fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas combustion and carbon dioxide emissions to (CO2).。

求助,一部分英语的翻译,请高人帮忙下,要能通顺 谢谢

Climate Change and Global Warming: The Real Enemies. 。

Climate Change and Global Warming: The Real Enemies.。

Are we getting close to the next Ice Age? Is the planet getting close to a total climate change? Would humans survive these changes? Obviously these are hard questions to answer at the moment, but the truth is that global warming is happening now and climate change will affect life on earth. Different scientists around the world have studied climate change and global warming in order to find an answer to how and why this is happening, but no real answers have been found to these questions. It is believed by some scientists that world climate change is originated as a natural-evolutionary response; however, other scientists have a strong belief that human activities are the major cause of these changes. Governments of different countries and the United Nations (UN) have come together at different conferences in order to find a solution to the global warming problem. Global warming not only affects the human development in the world but also affects government policies related to pollution and environmental protection. Global warming is a fact and not a prediction, as some people want us to believe; therefore, it is important that each country helps to protect our planet because it is the only one we have. Climate change originates from different causes that will result in many effects, which will affect human activities and government policies in each country. Every country is adopting different policies according to their problems and needs; therefore, the UN has created a world policy, which could help to reduce the pollution on the earth. Even though the UN has taken a lead role in setting world policy, individual governments, such as the United States and Venezuela, each have differing opinions and don’t always agree. This lack of concurrence is the primary reason for the lack of progress in moving toward resolution of this very complex issue. 。

Climate change is problem that affects all life in earth, such changes are being originated by two factors: natural and human causes. It is believed by many scientists that human activities are the major causes of climate change with a responsibility range of 55% or more. “Climate change can also be defined according to human perception. Humans tend to think in terms of shorter time scales, such as years and decades… people might view them [climate changes] as a permanent change in climate and not as variability or fluctuation,”(170) explained by Michael H. Glantz in his article “Climatic Shifts: Omens of Global Warming”. Many scientists believe that climate change is directly related to global warming, which is becoming a dangerous situation that can damage fragile life on earth. Some natural causes are solar motion, variant of earth’s trajectory in a long period of time and volcanic action. “Scientists call them [natural causes] forcing functions because they make the climate system alter its behavior,” (170) says Glantz. Many people believe that climate change is being originated by the activity of sunspots, even though they have different phases of activity where they can be very abundant or just a few. Based on this, we can assume that earth has different faces on climate and the sun, which will cause hotter or colder temperatures, influences it. Therefore, the agricultural activity will be directly affected by this problem. If the earth’s temperature increases, the levels of evaporation will increase too and this will raise rainfall amounts, which can lead to flooding and loss of crops and land. If the earth is far from the sun, the earth will have cold cycles. If the earth is close to the sun, the earth will have warmer cycles. This kind of change is being experienced every year when the earth goes around the sun, but sometimes the earth can experience hotter or colder temperatures than usual. It affects human activities in such ways that humans develop their activities depending on seasons. Seasons are really helpful to agriculture production because farmers can predict rainy seasons, which are necessary to cultivate crops in order to not reduce the production. However, rainy seasons can be altered or affected by different factors and global warming is one of these factors. If the rainy season changes its time and length based on the normality of its cycles, many crops are going to be affected and the land can become too dry for future use. On the other hand, when some places in the world are becoming drier, it is known that other parts of the world are going to have flooding problems. Volcanic activity is another factor that influences climate change and its influence can be for just short period of time. However, a chain of volcanic explosions could have a greater effect in the world climate system for longer periods of time.。

Human activities are another and maybe the biggest cause of global warming and climate change. “Human activities have been altering the natural environment for thousands of years,”(171) says Glantz. However, since industrialization began, the environment started to be dramatically impacted by such activities. The main cause of this impact is the release of large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is the major component of greenhouse gases. Industries in general are big consumers of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, which produce large quantities of CO2 when is burned. Not only do industries use such products but also humans find it necessary to use fossil fuels every day. It is true that we need fuel to operate our cars, gas to heat our homes and coal to produce electricity, but all of these activities are affecting the climate on earth. Greenhouse gases are the major cause of global warming. When greenhouse gases are expelled in the atmosphere, they trap long-wave radiation that is re-emitted by the earth’s surface and therefore increasing the earth’s temperature because such radiation cannot leave the earth’s surface. Some examples of greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Not only is the use of fossil fuels causing greenhouse gases but also tropical deforestation is adding to this problem. “Another contribution to the gas buildup comes from tropical deforestation in South America, Southeast Asia, and Central Africa,” (172) says Glantz. Deforestation activity has increased the production of greenhouse gases in a 15%. Trees and vegetation are really important in the balance of the planet because they help to reduce the amounts of carbon dioxide that exists in the air. If trees are cut down, destroyed and burned, they will release the storage of carbon dioxide consumed by the photosynthesis process. Moreover, if there are fewer trees, there will be less reduction of carbon atoms and greenhouse gases from the air. In order to resolve the global warming problem, it is necessary to reduce the production of greenhouse gases, which are causing health issues such as lung problems and skin cancer too. Other factors that affect climate change are increases in population, which brings construction of cities that consume a lot of energy producing unnatural climates, and the wide-scale irrigation of farms, which produce enough evaporation to modify neighboring weather making the atmosphere wetter. “Some researchers have found that a heat island produces more precipitation within a city and downwind from it… because of the effect, some cities are showing a 3 °F warming”(172) says Glantz. 。

Adapting to climate changes has been one of oldest situations that men have become used to. John and Mary Gribbin explain in their article “Of Frozen Milk and Bison Herds” that men have to deal with climate change since beginning many centuries ago. John and Mary Gribbin explain that different societies in different eras had to deal with strong climate changes, sometimes they were good changes and sometimes they were not. It is explained by the Gribbins that climate change is not something new, but it really affect the human life on earth and their decisions on where to live. “Lamb (a pioneering climatologist who has promoted the idea that climate change influences human affairs) has suggested that the beginning of the end of the little optimum may have been responsible for the emergence of the Mongol hordes out of Asia early in the 13th century” explain the Gribbins. We can see through this article that men have experienced a lot of climate changes and this has influenced their style of life and even their government. The Gribbins explain in their article that the Scottish population had a lot of suffering during the 14th century from the consequences of climate change. Following the constructive weather of the 12th and 13th centuries, which had permitted farming to extend far up the glens, and brought a golden time to the society in the north. The Scotts had to suffer the dryness of the 14th century that provoked crop collapse and starvation and motivated people conflict. “In the 1430s, conditions were so bad that bread was made from the bark of tress, since there was no grain; and civil unrest became so great that in 1436 King James I was murdered while out hunting near Perth” say the Gribbins. After this situation, the court moved away to the fortified city of Edinburgh, which turns out to be Scotland’s capital. Another example of how climate change is affecting the human life is explained in the article “Flooding, Heat Wave, Melting Glaciers Across Europe: Result of Global Warming’ written by Jan M. Olsen and published in CNEWS. This article talks about the problem that Europe has presented in the last couple years. Olsen explains that temperatures are rising in Europe caused by heat waves and this brings as a consequence the melting of glaciers in the Alps and flooding around areas. Some European scientists say that global warming has been present for many years, but in recent years the problem is becoming delicate. “Flooding has killed about 80 people in 11 countries, affected more than 600,000 and caused economic losses equivalent to at least $24 billion Cdn” says Olsen. Olsen, who explains that 20,000 deaths were confirmed during the European wave in 2003 and causes the loss of 30% of the crops too. It has been proven that all this flooding and melting glaciers have raised sea level by 0.8 to 3.0 millimeters in the last century and is prognosticated to increase by 2 to 4 times higher throughout this century. Based on all this effects “the European union has been a leader in pushing for implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, a UN pact to combat climate change by reducing carbon dioxide”, says Olsen. We can see how climate changes have influenced in the creation of new policies that the government of those countries has to adopt.。

In this case not only have the governments of some countries adopted new policies but also the UN has created new policies in their worldwide conferences on climate changes. One of the most recognized conferences is the Kyoto Protocol, which was realized in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997. “[The Kyoto Protocol] sketched out basic rules, but did not flesh out details of how they would be applied”(4) exposed in the guide “Caring for Climate: A Guide to The Climate Change Convention And The Kyoto Protocol”. It is informed by the Conference of Party (COP), which is the committee in charge of the Kyoto Protocol, that it is necessary to do a separate official procedure of signature and confirmation by countrywide governments in order to enter into power. The objective of the Kyoto Protocol is stabilizing atmospheric absorption of greenhouse gases at a point that would avoid unsafe alteration of the climate system. “Defining what is meant by dangerous involves social and economic considerations as well as scientific judgment,” explained in the Kyoto Protocol guide. The Kyoto Protocol expects that countries that are part of this organization reduce their levels of CO2 production in a 5% in a period of 10 years. Countries that are part of the protocol were divided into different groups such as ANNEX I, which are industrialized countries that belong to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1992 and countries with economy in transition (EIT), NON-ANNEX I or ANNEX II, which are the OECD nations without including the EIT nations, and LDC, which are the least developed countries that are classified by the UN. For a complete list of countries that are part of the Kyoto Protocol go to the “Caring for Climate Guide” page 13. The requirement for ANNEX I parties is to reduce their production of greenhouse gases and adopt policies that regulate activities, which affect climate change, and ANNEX II parties are required to give economic funds to assist developing countries to fight greenhouse gas production. The COP meets every year to approve resolutions for additional development of the Convention’s rules. There are two institutions that help the COP to obtain valuable information. The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA), which provides all the information related with science, technology and methodology and The Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI), which provides the help necessary to assess the Convention’s execution and it helps to deal with economic and organizational matters. “Two other bodies, the Global Environment Facility and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change provide services to the Convention” explained in the Kyoto Protocol guide.。

Different countries have different reactions and opinions regarding this protocol. For example, the United States of America and the Bush Administration decided that they were not going to be part of this protocol. The Bush Administration believes that global warming is not a problem that should concern them because they insist that there is no such thing as global warming. If the United States decides to be part of the Kyoto Protocol, the energy industry of this country will have a to spend $300 billion in order to meet the reduction of production of greenhouse gases required by the Kyoto Protocol. “Donald Kennedy, editor of the respected journal Science… agrees the administration is politicizing science more than previous administrations,” says William Triplett in his article “Science and Politics”. It is important to mention that President Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney have extensive professional and personal ties with the energy industry of the United States, which gave a big contribution to the Bush campaign and other republican senators such as Sen. James Inhofe, R-Okla. James Inhofe opposes the regulation of the production of greenhouse gases by the federal government because he claims that sound science, which is consistent and demonstrated scientific data, does not support the idea that such gases are provoking global warming. On the other hand, there are some Republican senators that oppose Inhofe’s idea. Senator Chuck Hagel, R-Nebraska, is one of the few leading Republican influencing climate change. “[Hagel] introduced three bills designed to be economic jumper cables that would boost the development of clean-energy technologies” says Amanda Griscom Little in her article “Nebraska Republican Chuck Hagel Chats with Grist about Climate Change” published by Grist Magazine. These bills are focused on the exchange of international technology, which must be clean-energy technologies, and the authorization of $4 billion over five years to encourage the national development of non-polluting technologies. “The objective is to address the issue of greenhouse-gas emissions in a realistic and achievable way” explains Hagel. Obviously the Bush Administration’s priority is to expend US money in defense and war. Moreover, they are trying to convince the world that humans are not causing global warming because they know that the US is the biggest polluting country in the world and it will cost the government a lot of money to make changes that will reduce global warming. I wonder what the purpose of spending all that money on a war that is supposed to protect the US citizens from other countries, when in the end we are all slowly killing each other by contaminating the earth. Another country like Venezuela, which is the third largest oil exporter in the world, is agreeable to approve the Kyoto Protocol. “Although Venezuela is an oil exporting country, the amount of greenhouse gas emissions is relatively low, constituting 0.48% of global greenhouse emissions when the United States alone produces 35%” says Ana Elisa Osorio, who is the Minister of the Environment and Natural Resources of Venezuela, in the article “Venezuelan Government Will Ratify the Kyoto Protocol”. Even thought Venezuela is not required by any international act to accept the Kyoto Protocol’s policies, the Venezuelan government is enthusiastic to cooperate. Osorio considers it to be really unsupportive for the United States to reject the Kyoto Protocol. She questions this decision based on the quantities of greenhouse gases that the US produces.。

Global warming and climate change are affecting all life on earth and the solution to this problem is in our governments. Humans have suffered for many years because of the climate change, but most recently these changes have occurred dramatically, affecting the economy and life. Many countries have taken the right decision on becoming part of the Kyoto Protocol, but is alarming that the biggest polluting country, the United States, has rejected this convention in which its only idea is to save the planet from melting down. It is obviously unfair that the other 65% of the world, made up of many countries, has to pay the consequences of just one country that is creating 35% of the problem. The United States has always claimed that it wants to save the citizens of the world on every worldwide activity that they are part of, but I wonder why they don’t want to save the world that they are part. I believe that the only answer to this question is that President Bush doesn’t want to expend money on something that his father doesn’t tell him to. I just leave it to everyone’s mind to decide what is the right answer to this problem.。

想把一段中文翻译成英文

其它问题企业面孔是, 那些修改他们的产品由于增加的消费者关心必须对付事实消费者悟性有时不是正确的。作为例如麦当劳是它用塑料盖料纸替换它的蛤蜊壳的案件。有更加环境是友好的持续的科学辩论。一些科学证据建议, 当采用摇篮对坟墓方法, 多苯乙烯较不环境是有害的。如果这是盒麦当劳鞠躬对消费者压力, 更加环境选择了有害的选择。 当企业试图变得社会上负责任, 他们也许面对风险, 今天的环境负责任的行动在将来将被发现有害的。采取例如转换从CFCs 的湿剂产业(含氟氯烃) 对HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) 只告诉HFCs 并且是温室气体。一些企业现在使用DME (二甲基以太) 作为湿剂发射火箭, 也许并且危害臭氧层[ Debets 1989 年] 。假使有限的科学知识在任一点及时, 它也许是无法为企业肯定他们做出了正确环境决定。这也许解释为什么一些企业, 象可口可乐和华特・迪斯尼世界, 变得社会上负责任没有公开点。他们也许保护自己免受潜在的未来消极后退, 如果它是坚定的他们做出了错误决定从前。 当政府章程被设计提供消费者机会做出更好的决定或更加环境刺激他们是负责任的, 有困难在建立将演讲所有环境问题的政策。例如, 指南显现出控制环境营销地址唯一非常狭窄的套问题, 即, 环境营销要求[ Schlossberg 1993 的] 诚实年。如果政府想要修改消费者行为他们需要建立另外套章程。因而政府企图保护环境也许导致章程和指南的扩散, 没有一个中央控制身体。 起反应对竞争压力可能导致所有"followe" 犯错误和"leader." 一样; 这的一个昂贵的例子是跟随竞争和被介绍的"biodegradable" 的Mobil Corporation; 塑料垃圾袋。当这些袋子技术上是生物可分解的, 下他们被配置的条件在没有允许生物降解发生。Mobil 由几美国各州起诉了至于使用误导广告要求[ 劳伦斯1991 年] 。如此盲目跟随竞争可能有昂贵的分枝。

推挤减少费用或增加赢利不能强迫企业论及环境退化的重要问题。结束管子解答不能减少废物但宁可实际上转移它。当这也许是有利的, 它不一定论及更大的环境问题, 虽然它也许使它的短期影响减到最小。多数废物导致最后将进入废弃河, 因此环境是负责任的组织应该试图使他们的废物减到最小, 而不是发现"appropriate" 用途为它。

原文地址：http://www.qianchusai.com/hydrofluorocarbons.html