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蒙特卡洛法的基本原理

蒙特卡洛模型的基本原理是模拟单个光子的传输过程，本质上是一系列随机作用和随机过程的计算机模拟，如光子吸收、散射、传输路径、步长等。光子从发射到进入组织再到从组织中逸出要历经许多过程，以单个光子为例，首先是光子发射，即单个光子垂直入射到组织表面，光子质量W 被初始化为1，当组织与周围介质折射率不同时，在入射界面处要考虑镜面反射（界面不光滑时考虑漫折射），其反射比设为RSP ，因此进入介质的能量为1-RSP ，这部分能量就是接下来要进行蒙特卡洛模拟的部分。进入组织后光子继续运动，首先要确定其运动步长s ，根据光子的运动步长和运动方向，可以得到光子与组织发生相互作用的坐标位置，并以此坐标为起点开始下一运动步长的模拟。光子在与组织发生相互作用时有（μa/μt）W 的能量被吸收，剩余部分能量的光子被散射，并继续重复上述过程，直到光子运动到边界处，此时，它有可能被返回到组织内部或者透过组织进入到周围介质。如果光子被反射，那么它将继续传播，即重复上述运动；如果光子穿透组织，根据其穿透的是前表面还是后表面，则相应被记入透射量和反射量。

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由于蒙特卡洛模型的精确性是建立在大量模拟的基础上，因此这一方法耗时长，这与光谱技术的实时特性相矛盾。“查表法”的提出为这一问题提供了一种很好的解决途径，查表法的基本思想在于事先将一系列组织光学特性所对应的模拟结果存储到一个表格中，这样在对每一个光子进行模拟时，能够从这一表格中直接提取最终的模拟结果，从而节省了大量的模拟时间。

对于组织光子传输蒙特卡洛模型的研究已经开展了很多年，目前学术界广为接受和采用的是美国圣路易斯华盛顿大学华人教授Lihong Wang所提出的模型[1]，此模型是前向模型，即在已知组织吸收和散射特性的前提下对光子在组织中的传输分布进行模拟； 美国杜克大学助理教授Gregory Palmer等在前向模型的基础上开发出了所谓的后向模型[2]，这一模型是在已知光谱反射特性的基础上，通过多次随机假定光学特性并调用前向模型进行光谱拟合，从而筛选出与实际测量结果最为匹配的一组假定数据作为组织的光学特性参数。后向模型的提出使得蒙特卡洛模型能够从真正意义上对组织的光学参数进行检测，并定量得出组织的各组分参数。目前蒙特卡洛模型已被广泛用于多种肿瘤的离体及临床在体研究，并取得了令人满意的结果，最终应用于临床检测的相关仪器也已得到开发，并预计将在未来的十几年甚至是十年之内推向临床应用。

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当然目前关于这一模型仍有一定的发展提升空间，难点主要集中于如何进一步提高其精确性，这主要体现在两个方面：（1）如何进一步优化模型来提高精确性，目前这一模型对于仿体吸收散射特性的提取检测已经能够达到10%以内的误差精度，但最近的研究发现，将这一模型应用于仿体荧光检测时，其精确性仍有较大提升空间[3]。仿体荧光检测主要是为了研究模型提取固有荧光的能力，由于吸收和散射的存在，我们所检测的荧光并不是荧光物质本身的固有荧光，其光谱形状和强度均受到一定程度的改变，模型通过反射信号首先提取仿体的吸收和散射特性，进而用于对荧光信号进行矫正从而得到固有荧光光谱。研究发现，蒙特卡洛模型能够对荧光光谱形状进行良好恢复，但对于荧光光强的恢复其精确度仍有待提高。（2）如何提高用于人体组织检测的精确性，人体组织的情况往往是极为复杂的，这就需要开发精确的光子蒙特卡洛多层介质传输模型。目前关于这方面的研究已经取得一定的成果[1]，但仍需要开展更多的工作。

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参考文献：

[1] Wang L，Jacques SL，Zheng L. MCMLMonte Carlo Modeling of Light Transport in Multi-layered Tissues[J]. Comput Methods Programs Biomed，1995，47（2）：131-146.。

[2] Palmer GM，Ramanujam N. Monte Carlobased Inverse Model for Calculating Tissue Optical Properties. Part I：Theory and Validation on Synthetic Phantoms[J]. Appl Opt，2006，45（5）：1062-1071.。

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[3] Palmer GM，Ramanujam N. Monte-Carlobased Model for the Extraction of Intrinsic Fluorescence From Turbid Media[J].J Biomed Opt，2008，13（2）：024017-024019.。

[4] Rajaram N，Aramil TJ，Lee K，et al. Design and Validation of A Clinical Instrument for Spectral Diagnosis of Cutaneous Malignancy[J]. Appl Opt，2010，49（2）：142-152.。

[5] Zhu CF，Palmer GM，Breslin TM，et al.Diagnosis of Breast Cancer Using Fluorescence and Diffuse Refl ectance Spectroscopy：A Monte-Carlo-Model-Based Approach[J]. J Biomed Opt，2008，13（3）：034015-034043.。

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[6] Palmer GM，Zhu C，Breslin TM，et al. Comparison of Multiexcitation Fluorescence and Diffuse Refl ectance Spectroscopy for the Diagnosis of Breast Cancer （March 2003）[J]. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng，2003，50（11）：1233-1242.。

啤酒的最基本分类

搂住哇，泥石流不是turbid ！！！！

泥石流 debris flow。

Debris flows, sometimes referred to as mudslides, mudflows, lahars, or debris avalanches, are common types of fast-moving landslides. These flows generally occur during periods of intense rainfall or rapid snow melt. They usually start on steep hillsides as shallow landslides that liquefy and accelerate to speeds that are typically about 10 miles per hour, but can exceed 35 miles per hour. The consistency of debris flows ranges from watery mud to thick, rocky mud that can carry large items such as boulders, trees, and cars. Debris flows from many different sources can combine in channels, and their destructive power may be greatly increased. They continue flowing down hills and through channels, growing in volume with the addition of water, sand, mud, boulders, trees, and other materials. When the flows reach flatter ground, the debris spreads over a broad area, sometimes accumulating in thick deposits that can wreak havoc in developed areas. 。

Among the most destructive types of debris flows are those that accompany volcanic eruptions. A spectacular example in the United States was a massive debris flow resulting from the 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Washington. Areas near the bases of many volcanoes in the Cascade Mountain Range of California, Oregon, and Washington are at risk from the same types of flows during future volcanic eruptions. 。

Wildfires can also lead to destructive debris-flow activity. In July 1994, a severe wildfire swept Storm King Mountain, west of Glenwood Springs, Colorado, denuding the slopes of vegetation. Heavy rains on the mountain in September resulted in numerous debris flows, one of which blocked Interstate 70 and threatened to dam the Colorado River. 。

Learn whether landslides or debris flows have occurred in your area by contacting local officials, state geological surveys or departments of natural resources, and university departments of geology. 。

Awareness Information。

Areas that are generally prone to landslide hazards include existing old landslides; the bases of steep slopes; the bases of drainage channels; and developed hillsides where leach-field septic systems are used. 。

Areas that are typically considered safe from landslides include areas that have not moved in the past; relatively flat-lying areas away from sudden changes in slope; and areas at the top or along ridges, set back from the tops of slopes. 。

Learn what to watch for prior to major landsliding. Look for patterns of storm-water drainage on slopes near your home, noting especially the places where runoff water converges, increasing flow over soil-covered slopes. Check hillsides around your home for any signs of land movement, such as small landslides or debris flows or progressively tilting trees. 。

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Debris flows are often referred to as mudslides, mudflows, jökulhlaups, or debris avalanches. There is also a debris flow type that has a rocky front called 'the head' and a 'tail' like wet concrete;this type has been well reported in the scientific literature. Debris flows consist primarily of geological material mixed with water. The composition of this type of flow is mainly soil and other matter, such as trees and rock fragments, that are picked up as the flow moves down a slope or channel. Debris flows may be generated when hillside colluvium or landslide material becomes rapidly saturated with water and flows into a channel. Heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or high levels of ground water flowing through cracked bedrock may trigger a movement of this type. Debris flows and floods may also occur when strong rains on hill or mountain slopes cause extensive erosion and/or what is known as "channel scour". Debris flows can be as thick as wet mud mixed with rock, and can transport very large boulders. Debris flows may also eventually become thinner muddy flood waters as they deposit their heavier components. Geological debris flows tend to move in pulses as friction or other barriers are overcome during the flow. Sometimes earlier pulses or previous debris flows form levees that channel the flow until they are breached. The presence of older levees indicates the recurrence and characteristics of debris flows in a particular area. This can be important information for developing land on what are known as alluvial fans. They are very dangerous and should be avoided at all costs.。

Theories and models of debris flows。

Debris flows as mud flows。

Rheologically based models that apply to mud flows that are treated as a homogeneous liquid (Examples include: Bingham, visco-plastic etc 。

The mixture theory of Iverson[1] 。

Dam break wave eg Hunt[2] 。

Roll wave Takahashi[3], Davies[4] 。

Unsaturated 'rocky' or 'stony' debris flows。

Progressive wave-Hungr[5] 。

A type of translating rock dam-Coleman[。

泥石流是指在山区或者其他沟谷深壑，地形险峻的地区，因为暴雨暴雪或其他自然灾害引发的携带有大量泥沙以及石块的特殊洪流。 泥石流具有突然性以及流速快，流量大，物质容量大和破坏力强等特点。发生泥石流常常会冲毁公路铁路等交通设施甚至村镇等，造成巨大损失。

成因

在某些地区，地势险峻而且土质疏松，由于长时间的大雨或者暴风雨而不断冲刷泥面，造成山体滑坡，泥土表面被严重冲刷。 泥石流的形成需要三个基本条件：

有陡峭便于集水集物的适当地形 。

上游堆积有丰富的松散固体物质 。

短期内有突然性的大量流水来源 。

分布范围

泥石流经常发生在峡谷地区和地震火山多发区，而且一般认为它的分布极为广泛。东亚季风区最为严重。

西安至兰州公路，甘肃至四川公路，甘肃至青海公路经常受泥石流的危害。

防治

保持水土，做好预警。在工程上选择跨越泥石流的路线，加强排灌，修筑滞留拦截挡坝，防止水流成灾。

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Debris flows are one of the most dangerous of all mass wasting events. They can occur suddenly and inundate entire towns in a matter of minutes. Debris flows are made of exactly what the name suggests: debris. This debris can include anything from the smallest mud particles to boulders, trees, cars, and parts of buildings. Debris flows occur when rain water begins to wash material from a slope or when water sheets off of a freshly burned stretch of land. Chapparral land is especially susceptible to debris flows after a fire. The rapidly moving water cascades down the slopes, and into the canyons and valleys below. It picks up speed and some debris as it descends the valley walls. In the valley itself, months of dry ravel, loose soil and rocks that have rolled or slid off the slope, begins to move with the water. As the system gradually picks up speed, the flow takes on the characteristics of a basic river system. The faster the water flow, the more the water can pick up. As the water picks up more mud and rocks, it begins to resemble a fast flowing river of concrete. This wall of debris can move so rapidly that it can pluck boulders the size of cars from the floors of the canyons and hurl them along the path of the flow. It's the speed and enormity of carried particles that makes a debris flow so dangerous. Boulders crash through homes and the mud-water mix fills in the rooms sometime totally overtaking the house.。

People have tried many methods for stopping or diverting debris flows. In California, catch basins have been constructed to "catch" the debris. Some basins have special overflow ducts with screens to remove the water from the flow and allow more room for the bigger items that may be washed in and take up needed space.。

Debris flows happen so rapidly that there is really no way to monitor one until it is on top of you. Instruments in catch basins and flow channels can measure the rate or discharge of the flow by calculating the amount (volume) of material per unit of time (usually seconds).。

常见啤酒的分类方法

啤酒是一种古老的酒精饮料，已有几千年的生产历史。如今啤酒已成为世界上产量最多、分布最广的饮料酒，世界各地的啤酒节也成为了一种传统文化。

文：陈磊 | 整理：酩悦团队

夏日炎炎，空气中充满着令人焦躁的气息！如果能够在这个时候来一杯冰镇的啤酒，是多么的惬意，消暑解渴。下面就带大家彻底了解一下啤酒的各种信息。



一、啤酒传统划分

1、根据啤酒色泽划分：

（1）淡色啤酒(Pale Beers)，是各类啤酒中产量最多的一种，按色薄泽的深浅，淡色啤酒又可分为以下三种，“淡黄色啤酒”：此种啤酒大多采用色泽极浅，溶解度不高的麦芽为原料，糖化周期短，因此啤酒色泽浅。其口味多属淡爽型，酒花香味浓郁；“金黄色啤酒”：此种啤酒所采用的麦芽，溶解度较淡黄色啤酒略高，因此色泽呈金黄色，其产品商标上通常标注Gold一词，以便消费者辨认。口味醇和，酒花香味突出；“棕黄色啤酒”：此类酒采用溶解度高的麦芽，烘烙麦芽温度较高，因此麦芽色泽深，酒液黄中带棕色，实际上已接近浓色啤酒，其口味较粗重、浓稠。

（2）浓色啤酒（Brown Beer)，顾名思义就是色泽比较深的啤酒，其色泽和口味多和工艺有关，浓色啤酒普遍多来自于国外，这两年在国内流行起来的一种原浆啤酒就属于浓色啤酒，也叫精酿啤酒，酒精度高、口感粗犷，香气丰富酒体饱满，是真正啤酒爱好者的钟爱品。

（3）黑啤（stout Beer)，黑啤酒为什么叫“黑啤”其主要还是来自于其独有的酒体颜色，黑啤酒最初流行于德国慕尼黑，制作工艺主要是将优质麦芽进行特殊烘焙，比普通麦芽的烘焙温度要高，但是火候把控极其精准，达到焦而不糊，黑啤酒有非常特殊的烘焙味，焦香、如咖啡般的烘焙味道，但香气纯正，优质黑啤具有很优雅的烘焙香味，口感甚好，泡沫丰富洁白。

2、根据啤酒杀菌处理情况划分：

分为鲜啤酒和熟啤酒。目前有两种杀菌方法：一种是传统的高温杀菌，又称为“巴氏杀菌”；一种是用紫外线杀菌法，称为“阿尔法杀菌”。高温杀菌是常规啤酒的杀菌法，就是利用高温蒸汽将啤酒中的酵母菌杀死，使其不能保存发酵，从而保证了啤酒的储存期限。采用“阿尔法杀菌”方式是利用紫外线杀菌，不经过高温杀菌也可以达到数月的保质期，这种工艺的杀菌方法可以更有效的保存了啤酒的丰富口感，用高温杀菌的啤酒口感没有这么鲜美，杀菌温度达到70度以上，啤酒的口感还会出现柴涩味、老化味。

3、根据原麦汁浓度划分：

分为低浓度啤酒、中浓度啤酒和高浓度啤酒。低度啤酒一般常见的是6-8度，中都啤酒常见的8-10度，高度啤酒常见的11-14度。

4、根据发酵性质划分：

（1）顶部发酵。使用该酵母发酵的啤酒在发酵过程中，液体表面大量聚集泡沫发酵。这种方式发酵的啤酒适合温度高的环境 16-24 °C。

（2）底部发酵。顾名思义，该啤酒酵母在底部发酵，又称为低温发酵，发酵温度要求较低，6-14°C酒精含量较低，味道偏酸。

急求关于海蜇的英文翻译，奖励100分，如快，可在另加分，谢谢！！

一：纯生啤酒

定义：纯生啤酒的生产是建立在整个酿造、过滤、包装全过程对污染微生物严格控制的基础上，不经巴氏灭菌或瞬时高温灭菌，而采用物理方法除菌，达到一定生物稳定性的生啤酒。

特点：口感更新鲜、口味更纯正、稳定性更好、营养价值更高。

生产工艺：纯生啤酒的生产不经高温杀菌，采用无菌膜过滤技术滤除酵母菌、杂菌，使啤酒避免了热损伤，保持了原有的新鲜口味。最后一道工序进行严格的无菌灌装，避免了二次污染。

二：小麦啤酒

定义：小麦啤酒--以小麦芽为主要原料（占总原料40%以上），采用上面发酵法或下面发酵法酿制的啤酒。

特点：有小麦的香味和酵母发酵所生成的酯香。气泡饱满。在酿造时避免使用大量的酒花。有桔子或者香蕉的香味，入口时甜，微酸。下口后唇齿留香。

生产工艺：采用“上面发酵法“或”下面发酵法“酿制。

三：扎啤

定义：扎啤是经过微孔膜过滤的啤酒。

特点：纯天然、无色素、无防腐剂、不加糖、不加任何香精的优质酒，营养极为丰富。

生产工艺：发芽的大麦在滚筒碾碎机中碾碎，注入热水混合，旋转入麦芽汁桶。煮沸促使蛋白质分解，抽回到麦芽汁桶，几个小时内慢慢的上升温度。这个工艺起初应用于德国白啤酒(Weissbiers）和德国巴克黑啤酒(Backs)的酿造。

四：清爽啤酒

定义：为女士提供尽可能去除苦涩口感的啤酒。

特点：口感好、清爽、酸甜、不容易醉。

生产工艺：发酵在八个小时内发生并以加快的速度进行，积聚一种被称作"皱沫"的高密度泡沫。这种泡沫在第3或第4天达到它的最高阶段。在8~10天后发酵就完全结束。整个过程中，需要对温度和压力做严格的控制。

五：黑啤

定义：色深，使用比一般啤酒更多的蛇麻草花(啤酒花)。

特点：麦芽味重，较甜。黑啤营养丰富，是啤酒中的佳品，被人们称为“黑牛奶”。

生产工艺：与普通啤酒的工艺大致相同，不同的是原料食用用烤过的麦芽，使黑啤拥有不同的色泽和香味。

参考资料：百度百科—啤酒

《送别》的歌词英文翻译

Shows in jellyfish 。

Medusa jellyfish, also known as English: jelly fish, scientific name: MEDUSE IN SALAMOIA, is a large heated swimming jellyfish, male and female form. 95% of the body of water is the most water-bearing animals. The main production in Bohai Bay, China (for example: red sting in the Bohai Sea); western Japan, the South Korean is also a small-scale production; the Far East area of the former Soviet Union have recorded. 。

Sha divided jellyfish sting, sting-ming (also known as sting cotton) two. Sand size mast sting, but not smooth, was shaped lumps. Ming-wide sting beautiful, bright and clean and transparent, Fenpi was like, fit for human consumption, is a favorite seafood. 。

Nutritious jellyfish, each containing 100 grams of water 65%, 12.3% of protein, fat 0.1%, 4% carbohydrates, 182 milligrams of calcium. Jellyfish head and phlegm have Haizhe Pi, the soft-kin, blood pressure, Runchang functions. Extracted from jellyfish jellyfish known as anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-virus, and infected tumor for human consumption. Jellyfish taste delicious, crisp taste, unique flavor. Jellyfish usually the main raw food can reduce the loss of B vitamins. Jellyfish can also be cooked. Jellyfish have the capacity to absorb the delicious sauce, it is a delicacy of the table. Recipe: more than a headache that can be attached to the temple Hai Zhepi pain; Hai Zhepi if attached to the knee, the pain can be Qufeng Shi. 。

It is worth noting that in 2008 the world's three Nobel chemistry laureate by the study of all jellyfish. The jellyfish can be seen product development and utilization of the prospect of an immeasurable. 。

Jellyfish eat small sense 。

General jellyfish with fresh salt, alum, after three processing, salt (commonly known as alum to stem three jellyfish). Alum stung three alum of the skin than the second low water content, better taste, nutritional value is relatively higher. (For example, three cotton alum sting Paper) 。

1, the nutritional value of jellyfish. 。

The jellyfish is extremely rich in nutrients, and its unique nutrient composition is very low fat, protein and inorganic salts, and other rich content. In particular, people with a lack of dietary iodine, is a high-protein, low-fat, low-calorie foods. 。

2, the medicinal value of the jellyfish. 。

According to Li, "Compendium of Materia Medica", Qingrejiedu a jellyfish, soft phlegm Kennedy, the step-down function, such as swelling, bronchitis, asthma, high blood pressure, stomach ulcers are Dengzheng effect. Is engaged in hairdressing, textiles, food processing, such as dust and contact with more staff, jellyfish eat, you can plot to dust, stomach-ching, security and good health. 。

3, the jellyfish to buy. 。

Hai Zhepi processed into jellyfish and jellyfish in the first two, the upper Hai Zhepi white or milky white, large film formation, there is Rouhou toughness, mottled with black spot. 。

Good jellyfish was the first white, red or amber-colored, thick flesh, no impurities, such as sand, crisp taste has toughness. 。

The ready-to-eat jellyfish and more attention to shelf-life because: 1, the seasoning packet of oil should not be sealed in a plastic bag in a long time; 2, poor packaging led to the excessive micro-organisms that cause intestinal illness after eating. Do not buy bags or drums have been turbid liquid bag of ready-to-eat products jellyfish. After the opening of the goods ready-to-eat jellyfish best run out of time. 。

4, jellyfish salinity of the foam. 。

The bubble issued salted jellyfish is very important, the bubble will be made with cold water jellyfish washed to remove silt. With blisters and then cold 24 hours or so, the removal of salt, alum suffered salty. * Change regular attention to prevent decay. 。

5, the jellyfish for human consumption. 。

Will be fully made good soak into jellyfish or silk (block) 70-80 ℃ with the scalding hot water 10-15 seconds, immediately into cold water to cool, this jellyfish is not only fully made up, and Cuinen very, cold , And speculation can not lose its flavor. Edible jellyfish salad, it is best for human consumption before the temporary add vinegar, salt, and other seasonings, or jellyfish would become tough, "lose favor," impact on taste.。

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