voyages-40

哈利波特人物表

郑和下西洋的英文资料如下：

Zheng He's voyage to the West was a voyage between Yongle and Xuande in Ming Dynasty. The first voyage started in Yongle three years (1405), and the last voyage ended in Xuande eight years (1433), totaling seven times.。

Because the mission was being made by Zheng He, and the fleet sailed to the west of Borneo.。

On the seven voyage, Zheng He, the three treasures eunuch, led the fleet from the point of departure to the port of Liu Jia Gang, and to the port of Taiping port.。

The Western Pacific Ocean and Yang Yang visited more than 30 countries and regions, including Java, Sumatra, Su Lu, Peng Heng, Zhen La, Gu Li, Kun, bang Ge Luo, Kun, Tian Fang, Zuo FA Er, Wu. Rumus, Mugu Dushu and other places are known to reach East Africa and the Red Sea as far as possible.。

Zheng He's voyage to the west is the largest and longest sailing voyage in China in ancient times. It is also the largest maritime exploration in the history of the world before the voyage in the late fifteenth Century.。

However, there are still disputes about the historical facts of Zheng He's fleet, such as its purpose and scope of navigation, and its evaluation of the seven voyages.。

翻译：

郑和下西洋是明代永乐、宣德年间的一场海上远航活动，首次航行始于永乐三年（1405年），末次航行结束于宣德八年（1433年），共计七次。由于使团正使由郑和担任，且船队航行至婆罗洲以西洋面。

在七次航行中，三宝太监郑和率领船队从南京出发，在江苏太仓的刘家港集结，至福建福州长乐太平港驻泊伺风开洋 ，远航西太平洋和印度洋拜访了30多个国家和地区，其中包括爪哇、苏门答腊、苏禄、彭亨、真腊、古里、暹罗、榜葛剌、阿丹、天方、左法尔、忽鲁谟斯、木骨都束等地，目前已知最远到达东非、红海。

郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。然而，关于郑和船队的航海目的、航行范围等史实以及对七次航行的评价，仍存在争议。

扩展资料：

郑和：

郑和（1371年  - 1433年 ），回族，  本姓马，为明成祖朱棣赐姓郑，世称“三保太监又作“三宝太监”，云南昆阳州人。明朝太监，航海家、外交家。

郑和年轻时从侍燕王朱棣，有智略，知兵习战。后在靖难之役中有功，升任为内官监太监。1405年（永乐三年）至1424年（永乐二十二年），郑和六次作为正使太监下西洋。

1425年（洪熙元年）后，郑和任南京守备太监，1430年（宣德五年）受命第七次下西洋，一说在途中于1433年（宣德八年）卒于古里国，今南京牛首山南麓郑和墓或为其衣冠冢。

郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；

郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。晚清以降，郑和研究获得迅速发展，但不少重要课题仍无定论。

参考资料来源：百度百科-郑和下西洋。

参考资料来源：百度百科-郑和

谁知道在法国，哪个网站能定到回国便宜的机票

哈利·詹姆·波特（Harry James Potter）：魔杖长11英尺，冬青木，芯是凤凰的尾毛。

赫敏·格兰杰（Hermione Granger）：麻瓜出身，肮脏的叫法是“泥巴种”（Mudbloods）。

罗恩·韦斯莱（Ron Weasley）：怕蜘蛛（spider）；韦斯莱兄弟中的老六，魔杖十四英寸长，柳条，芯是独角兽的尾毛。

珀西·伊格内修斯·韦斯莱（Percy Ignatius Weasley）

塞德里克·迪戈里（Cedric Diggory）：魔杖十二又四分之一英寸长，芯是独角兽的尾毛。

芙蓉·德拉库尔（Fleur Delacour）：布斯巴顿魔法学院学生；有媚娃（Veela）的血统（她奶奶是媚娃）；魔杖九英寸半，械木，芯是媚娃的头发。

威克多尔·克鲁姆（Viktor Krum ）：德姆斯特朗魔法学院学生，保加利亚国家魁地奇球队找球手；很喜欢赫敏；魔杖长十又四分之一英寸长，鹅耳枥木，芯是龙的心脏腱索。

阿不思·珀西瓦尔·伍尔弗里克·布莱恩·邓布利多（Albus Percival Wulfric Brian Dumbledore）

汤姆·马沃罗·里德尔（Tom Marvolo Riddle）/伏地魔（Lord Voldemort）

詹姆·波特（James Potter）：是个“阿尼马格斯”（Animagus），外号叫“尖头叉子”（Prongs），变形为牡鹿。

莱姆斯·卢平（Remus Lupin）：是狼人（werewolf），每个月满月时会变成狼人；

康奈利·奥斯瓦尔德·福吉（Cornelius Oswald Fudge）：魔法部部长。

多洛雷斯·简·乌姆里奇（Dolores Jane Umbridge）：魔法部副部长。

阿米莉亚·苏珊·博恩斯（Amelia Susan Bones）

部分人名

1. 玛丽•多尔金（驯养鹦鹉邦吉的麻瓜） Mary Dorkinsi 。

2. 莫肯（达力的朋友） Malcolm 。

3. 皮尔（达力的朋友） Piers 。

4. 戈登（达力的朋友） Gordon 。

5. 马克•伊万斯（被达力一伙殴打的孩子） Mark Evans 。

6. 蒙顿格斯•弗莱奇（火焰杯中曾出现过两次） Mundungus Fletcher 。

7. 普伦提斯先生（紫藤路附近的麻瓜） Mr. Prentice 。

8. 马法尔达•霍普柯克（禁止滥用魔法司工作人员） Mafalda Hopkirk 。

9. 尼法朵拉•唐克斯（凤凰社成员） Nymphadora Tonks\ 。

10. 金斯莱•沙克尔（凤凰社成员） Kingsley Shacklebolt 。

11. 埃非亚•多戈（凤凰社成员） Elphias Doge 。

12. 德达洛•迪歌（凤凰社成员） Dedalus Diggle 。

13. 爱米琳•万斯（凤凰社成员） Emmeline Vance 。

14. 斯多吉•波德摩（凤凰社成员） Sturgis Podmore 。

15. 海丝佳•琼斯（凤凰社成员） Hestia Jones 。

16. 克利切（家养小精灵） Kreacher 。

17. 拉格诺（妖精） Ragnok 。

18. 瓦提•海尔斯（倒卖分子） Warty Harris 。

19. 阿尔法德•布莱克（小天狼星的叔叔） Alphard Black 。

20. 雷古勒斯•布莱克（小天狼星的弟弟） Regulus Black 。

21. 菲尼亚斯•奈杰勒斯（小天狼星的曾曾祖父） Phineas Nigellus 。

22. 阿拉明塔•梅利弗伦（小天狼星的母亲的堂妹） Araminta Mehflua 。

23. 埃拉朵拉•布莱克（小天狼星的婶婶） Elladora Black 。

24. 安多米达•布莱克（唐克斯的母亲） Andromeda Black 。

25. 泰德•唐克斯（唐克斯的父亲） Ted Tonks 。

26. 贝拉特里克斯•莱斯特兰奇（食死徒） Bellatrix Lestrange 。

27. 罗道夫斯•莱斯特兰奇（贝拉特里克斯的丈夫） Rodolphus Lestrange 。

28. 拉巴斯坦•莱斯特兰奇（罗道夫斯的弟弟） Rabastan Lestrange 。

29. 斯克林杰（魔法部工作人员） Scrimgeour 。

30. 阿米莉亚•苏珊•博恩斯（魔法部法律执行司司长） Amelia Susan Bones 。

31. 埃里克（魔法部安检男巫） Eric 。

32. 鲍勃（魔法部工作人员） Bob 。

33. 珀金斯（韦斯莱先生的同事） Perkins 。

34. 布罗德里克•博德（魔法部神秘事务司工作人员） Broderick Bode 。

35. 多洛雷斯•简•乌姆里奇（魔法部高级副部长，霍格沃茨黑魔法防御术教师，霍格沃茨高级调查官，霍格沃茨校长） Dolores Jane Umbridge 。

36. 威尔伯特•斯林卡（《魔法防御理论》的作者） Wilbert Slinkhard 。

37. 马琳•麦金农（被杀害的凤凰社成员） Marlene McKinnon 。

38. 弗兰克和艾丽斯•隆巴顿（纳威的父母） Frank & Alice Longbottom 。

39. 本吉•芬威克（被杀害的凤凰社成员） Benjy Fenwick 。

40. 埃德加•博恩斯（被杀害的凤凰社成员） Edgar Bones 。

41. 卡拉多克•迪尔博恩（失踪的凤凰社成员） Caradoc Dearborn 。

42. 吉迪翁•普威特（被杀害的凤凰社成员） Gideon Prewettj 。

43. 费比安•普威特（被杀害的凤凰社成员） Fabian Prewett 。

44. 多卡斯•梅多斯（被杀害的凤凰社成员） Dorcas Meadowes 。

45. 卢娜•洛夫古德（疯姑娘）（拉文克劳四年级学生） Luna Lovegood (Loony) 。

46. 安东尼•戈德斯坦（拉文克劳级长，邓布利多军成员） Anthony Goldstein 。

47. 多丽丝•珀基斯（《唱唱反调》中接受采访的女士） Doris Purkiss 。

48. 胖墩子•勃德曼（《唱唱反调》中所认为是“小天狼星布莱克”的人） Stubby Boardman 。

49. 尤安•阿伯克龙比（格兰芬多一年级新生） Euan Abercrombie 。

50. 罗斯•泽勒（赫奇帕奇一年级新生） Rose Zeller 。

51. 帕翠霞•斯廷森（格兰芬多七年级学生） Patricia Stimpson 。

52. 肯尼斯•托勒（格兰芬多七年级学生） Kenneth Towler 。

53. 伊尼戈•英麦格（《解梦指南》的作者） Inigo Imago 。

54. 维基•弗罗比舍（参加格兰芬多守门员选拔的学生之一） Vicky Probisher 。

55. 杰弗里•胡珀（参加格兰芬多守门员选拔的学生之一） Geoffrey Hooper 。

56. 格丽西尔达•马克班斯/格丝尔达•玛奇班（威森加摩元老，OWL考试主考官之一） Griselda Marchbanks 。

57. 提贝卢斯•奥格登（威森加摩元老） Tiberius Odgen 。

58. 卡珊德拉•特里劳妮（西比尔•特里劳妮的玄祖母） Cassandra Trelawney 。

59. 迈克尔•科纳（金妮的前任男友，邓布利多军成员） Michael Corner 。

60. 扎卡赖斯•史密斯（邓布利多军成员） Zacharias Smith 。

61. 威尔米娜•格拉普兰（保护神奇生物课代课教师） Wilhelmina Grubbly-Plank 。

62. 玛丽埃塔•艾克莫（邓布利多军成员，告密者） Marietta Edgecombe 。

63. 迈尔斯•布莱奇（斯莱特林队守门员） Miles Bletchley 。

64. 巴里•瑞安（爱尔兰队守门员） Barry Ryan 。

65. 拉迪斯洛•扎莫斯基（波兰队追球手） Ladislaw Zamojski 。

66. 蒙太/蒙塔古（斯莱特林队队长） Montague 。

67. 卡库斯（前巨人首领） Karkus 。

68. 高高马（现巨人首领） Golgomath 。

69. 乌乌（夜骐） Tenebrus 。

70. 安德鲁•柯克（新格兰芬多击球手） Andrew Kirke 。

71. 杰克•斯劳珀（新格兰芬多击球手） Jack Sloper 。

72. 埃弗拉（曾任霍格沃茨校长） Everard 。

73. 戴丽丝•德文特（曾任霍格沃茨校长，圣芒戈医院治疗师） Dilys Derwent 。

74. 艾芙丽达•克拉格（魔法部画像） Elfrida Cragg 。

75. “危险”戴•卢埃林（魁地奇球员） “Dangerous” Dai Llewellyn 。

76. 希伯克拉特•斯梅绥克（主治疗师） Hippocrates Smethwyck 。

77. 奥古斯都•派伊（实习治疗师） Augustus Pye 。

78. 厄克特•拉哈罗（掏肠咒发明者） Urquhart Rackharrow 。

79. 威利•威德辛（厕所回涌始作俑者，告密者） Willy Widdershins 。

80. 杰纳斯•西奇（封闭病房名） Janus Thickey 。

81. 格拉迪丝•古吉翁（洛哈特的崇拜者） Gladys Gudgeon 。

82. 阿格尼丝（封闭病房长住病人） Agnes 。

83. 鼻涕精（斯内普） Snivellus 。

84. 玛什夫人（骑士公车乘客） Madam Marsh 。

85. 安东宁•多洛霍夫（食死徒） Antonin Dolohov 。

86. 奥古斯特•卢克伍德（食死徒，前神秘事务司工作人员） Algernon Rookwood 。

87. 梅莲姆•斯特劳（圣芒戈医院封闭病房治疗师） Miriam Strout 。

88. 十全十美小姐/一本正经小姐（丽塔称呼赫敏） Miss. Perfect / Miss. Prissy 。

89. 夏比（赫奇帕奇找球手） Summerby` 。

90. 西奥多•诺特（斯莱特林五年级学生） Theodore Nott 。

91. 埃弗里（食死徒） Avery 。

92. 艾克莫夫人（魔法交通司飞路网办公室工作人员） Mrs. Edgecombe 。

93. 福斯科（曾任霍格沃茨校长） Fortescue 。

94. 德力士（魔法部傲罗） Dawlish 。

95. 斯特宾斯（詹姆的同级校友） Stebbins 。

96. 莉莉•伊万斯（莉莉的原名） Lily Evans 。

97. 布拉德利（拉文克劳队队员） Bradley 。

98. 格洛普（巨人，海格同母异父的弟弟） Grawp 。

99. 玛格瑞（马人首领） Magorian 。

100. 钱伯斯（拉文克劳队追球手） Chambers 。

101. 埃迪•卡米切尔（拉文克劳六年级学生，醒脑剂推销者） Eddie Carmichael 。

102. 哈罗德•丁戈（醒脑剂推销者） Harold Dingle 。

103. 达芙尼•格林格拉斯（五年级学生） Daphne Greengrass 。

104. 托福迪教授（OWLs考官） Professor Tofty 。

105. 皮埃尔•波拿库德（国际巫师联合会第一位会长） Pierre Bonaccord 。

106. 加格森（食死徒） Jugson 。

107. 穆尔塞伯（食死徒） Mulciber 。

108. 威廉森（魔法部工作人员） Williamson。

谁知道怎样用英语介绍加拿大?

http://www.govoyages.com/ 。

这个网站不错。我就是在这里订的5月初回国9月初回法国的的往返机票 。

税后才501欧

希望帮到你.

补充回答：你说的是09年1月份还是？但是现在已经3月了诶。

通常来说 越早订一般来说优惠的越多。像我，在今年一月初就已经订好了5月的机票 所以相对来说比较便宜。

另，不同的航空公司的价格也不同。

你可以多看看那些航空公司，像我订的是英航的，相对与国航的就便宜了许多，但是得在英国转机。

而且到达国内的目的地也是价格的不同的原因，有时候像同航空公司到上海的价钱就比到香港，北京的便宜。

Canada

Canada, independent nation (2001 pop. 30,007,094), 3,851,787 sq mi (9,976,128 sq km), N North America. Canada occupies all of North America N of the United States (and E of Alaska) except for Greenland and the French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. It is bounded on the E by the Atlantic Ocean, on the N by the Arctic Ocean, and on the W by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska. A transcontinental border, formed in part by the Great Lakes, divides Canada from the United States; Nares and Davis straits separate Canada from Greenland. The Arctic Archipelago extends far into the Arctic Ocean. 。

Canada is a federation of 10 provinces—Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia—and three territories—Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, and the Yukon Territory. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its largest city is Toronto. Other important cities include Montreal, Vancouver, Edmonton, Calgary, Winnipeg, Hamilton, and Quebec. 。

Land

Canada has a very long and irregular coastline; Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St. Lawrence indent the east coast and the Inside Passage extends along the west coast. The ice-clogged straits between the islands of N Canada form the Northwest Passage. During the Ice Age all of Canada was covered by a continental ice sheet that scoured and depressed the land surface, leaving a covering of glacial drift, depositional landforms, and innumerable lakes and rivers. Aside from the Great Lakes, which are only partly in the country, the largest lakes of North America—Great Bear, Great Slave, and Winnipeg—are entirely in Canada. The St. Lawrence is the chief river of E Canada. The Saskatchewan, Nelson, Churchill, and Mackenzie river systems drain central Canada, and the Columbia, Fraser, and Yukon rivers drain the western part of the country. 。

Canada has a bowl-shaped geologic structure rimmed by highlands, with Hudson Bay at the lowest point. The country has eight major physiographic regions—the Canadian Shield, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, the Western Cordillera, the Interior Lowlands, the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachians, the Arctic Lowlands, and the Innuitians. 。

The exposed portions of the Canadian Shield cover more than half of Canada. This once-mountainous region, which contains the continent's oldest rocks, has been worn low by erosion over the millennia. Its upturned eastern edge is indented by fjords. The Shield is rich in minerals, especially iron and nickel, and in potential sources of hydroelectric power. In the center of the Shield are the Hudson Bay Lowlands, encompassing Hudson Bay and the surrounding marshy land. 。

The Western Cordillera, a geologically young mountain system parallel to the Pacific coast, is composed of a series of north-south tending ranges and valleys that form the highest and most rugged section of the country; Mt. Logan (19,551 ft/5,959 m) is the highest point in Canada. Part of this region is made up of the Rocky Mts. and the Coast Mts., which are separated by plateaus and basins. The islands off W Canada are partially submerged portions of the Coast Mts. The Western Cordillera is also rich in minerals and timber and potential sources of hydroelectric power. 。

Between the Rocky Mts. and the Canadian Shield are the Interior Lowlands, a vast region filled with sediment from the flanking higher lands. The Lowlands are divided into the prairies, the plains, and the Mackenzie Lowlands. The prairies are Canada's granary, while grazing is important on the plains. 。

The smallest and southernmost region is the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, Canada's heartland. Dominated by the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, the region provides a natural corridor into central Canada, and the St. Lawrence Seaway gives the interior cities access to the Atlantic. This section, which is composed of gently rolling surface on sedimentary rocks, is the location of extensive farmlands, large industrial centers, and most of Canada's population. In SE Canada and on Newfoundland is the northern end of the Appalachian Mt. system, an old and geologically complex region with a generally low and rounded relief. 。

The Arctic Lowlands and the Innuitians are the most isolated areas of Canada and are barren and snow-covered for most of the year. The Arctic Lowlands comprise much of the Arctic Archipelago and contain sedimentary rocks that may have oil-bearing strata. In the extreme north, mainly on Ellesmere Island, is the Innuitian Mt. system, which rises to c.10,000 ft (3,050 m). 。

Canada's climate is influenced by latitude and topography. The Interior Lowlands make it possible for polar air masses to move south and for subtropical air masses to move north into Canada. Hudson Bay and the Great Lakes act to modify the climate locally. The Western Cordillera serves as a climatic barrier that prevents polar air masses from reaching the Pacific coast and blocks the moist Pacific winds from reaching into the interior. The Cordillera has a typical highland climate that varies with altitude; the western slopes receive abundant rainfall, and the whole region is forested. The Interior Lowlands are in the rain shadow of the Cordillera; the southern portion has a steppe climate in which grasses predominate. S Canada has a temperate climate, with snow in the winter (especially in the east) and cool summers. Farther to the north, extending to the timberline, is the humid subarctic climate characterized by short summers and a snow cover for about half the year. The huge boreal forest, the largest surviving remnant of the extensive forests that once covered much of North America, predominates in this region. On the Arctic Archipelago and the northern mainland is the tundra, with its mosses and lichen, permafrost, near-year-round snow cover, and ice fields. A noted phenomenon off the coast of E Canada is the persistence of dense fog, which is formed when the warm air over the Gulf Stream passes over the cold Labrador Current as the two currents meet off Newfoundland. 。

People

About 40% of the Canadian population are of British descent, while 27% are of French origin. Another 20% are of other European background, about 10% are of E or SE Asian origin, and some 3% are of aboriginal or Métis (mixed aboriginal and European) background. In the late 1990s, Canada had the highest immigration rate of any country in the world, with more than half the total coming from Asia. Over 75% of the total population live in cities. Canada has complete religious liberty, though its growing multiculturalism has at times caused tensions among ethnic and religious groups. About 45% of the people are Roman Catholics, while some 40% are Protestant (the largest groups being the United Church of Canada, Anglicans, and Presbyterians). English and French are the official languages, and federal documents are published in both languages. In 1991, about 61% of Canadians cited English as their mother tongue, while 24% cited French. 。

Economy

Since World War II the development of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has led to the creation of an affluent society. Services now account for 66% of the GDP, while industry accounts for 31%. Tourism and financial services represent some of Canada's most important industries within the service sector. However, manufacturing is Canada's single most important economic activity. The leading products are transportation equipment, pulp and paper, processed foods, chemicals, primary and fabricated metals, petroleum, electrical and electronic products, wood products, printed materials, machinery, clothing, and nonmetallic minerals. Industries are centered in Ontario, Quebec, and, to a lesser extent, British Columbia and Alberta. Canada's industries depend on the country's rich energy resources, which include hydroelectric power, petroleum, natural gas, coal, and uranium. 。

Canada is a leading mineral producer, although much of its mineral resources are difficult to reach due to permafrost. It is the world's largest source of nickel, zinc, and uranium, and a major source of lead, asbestos, gypsum, potash, tantalum, and cobalt. Other important mineral resources are petroleum, natural gas, copper, gold, iron ore, coal, silver, diamonds, molybdenum, and sulfur. The mineral wealth is located in many areas; some of the most productive regions are Sudbury, Ont. (copper and nickel); Timmins, Ont. (lead, zinc, and silver); and Kimberley, British Columbia (lead, zinc, and silver). Petroleum and natural gas are found in Alberta and Saskatchewan. 。

Agriculture employs about 3% of the population and contributes a similar percentage of the GDP. The sources of the greatest farm income are livestock and dairy products. Among the biggest income-earning crops are wheat, oats, barley, corn, and canola. Canada is one of the world's leading agricultural exporters, especially of wheat. Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta are the great grain-growing provinces, and, with Ontario, are also the leading sources of beef cattle. The main fruit-growing regions are found in Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec, and Nova Scotia. Apples and peaches are the principal fruits grown in Canada. More than half of the total land area is forest, and Canadian timber production ranks among the highest in the world. 。

Fishing is an important economic activity in Canada. Cod and lobster from the Atlantic and salmon from the Pacific have been the principal catches, but the cod industry was halted in the mid-1990s due to overfishing. About 75% of the take is exported. The fur industry, once vitally important but no longer dominant in the nation's economy, is centered in Quebec and Ontario. 。

A major problem for Canada is that large segments of its economy—notably in manufacturing, petroleum, and mining—are controlled by foreign, especially U.S. interests. This deprives the nation of much of the profits of its industries and makes the economy vulnerable to developments outside Canada. This situation is mitigated somewhat by the fact that Canada itself is a large foreign investor. Since the free trade agreement with the United States (effective 1989), Canadian investment in U.S. border cities, such as Buffalo, N.Y., has increased dramatically. 。

The United States is by far Canada's leading trade partner, followed by Japan and Great Britain. Manufactured goods comprise the bulk of imports; crude petroleum and motor vehicles and parts rank high among both the nation's largest imports and exports. Other important exports are newsprint, lumber, wood pulp, wheat, machinery, aluminum, natural gas, hydroelectric power, and telecommunications equipment. 。

Government

Canada is an independent constitutional monarchy and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The monarch of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is also the monarch of Canada and is represented in the country by the office of governor-general. The basic constitutional document is the Canada Act of 1982, which replaced the British North America Act of 1867 and gave Canada the right to amend its own constitution. The Canada Act, passed by Great Britain, made possible the Constitution Act, 1982, which was passed in Canada. The document includes a Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees the rights of women and native peoples and protects other civil liberties. 。

The Canadian federal government has authority in all matters not specifically reserved to the provincial governments. The provincial governments have power in the fields of property, civil rights, education, and local government. They may levy only direct taxes. The federal government may veto any provincial law. Power on the federal level is exercised by the Canadian Parliament and the cabinet of ministers, headed by the prime minister. (See the table entitled Canadian Prime Ministers since Confederation for a list of Canada's prime ministers.) Canada has an independent judiciary; the highest court is the Supreme Court, with nine members. 。

The Parliament has two houses: the Senate and the House of Commons. There are generally 104 senators, apportioned among the provinces and appointed by the governor-general upon the advice of the prime minister. Senators may serve until age 75; prior to 1965 they served for life. The 301 members of the House of Commons are elected, largely from single-member constituencies. Elections must be held at least every five years. The Commons may be dissolved and new elections held at the request of the prime minister. There are four main political parties: the Liberal party, the Conservative party (formed in 2003 by the merger of the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservative party), the Bloc Québécois (aligned with the Parti Québécois of Quebec), and the New Democratic party. 。

History

Early History and French-British Rivalry 。

Prior to the arrival of Europeans in Canada, the area was inhabited by various peoples who came from Asia via the Bering Strait more than 10,000 years ago. The Vikings landed in Canada c.A.D. 1000. Their arrival is described in Icelandic sagas and confirmed by archaeological discoveries in Newfoundland. John Cabot, sailing under English auspices, touched the east coast in 1497. In 1534, the Frenchman Jacques Cartier planted a cross on the Gaspé Peninsula. These and many other voyages to the Canadian coast were in search of a northwest passage to Asia. Subsequently, French-English rivalry dominated Canadian history until 1763. 。

The first permanent European settlement in Canada was founded in 1605 by the sieur de Monts and Samuel de Champlain at Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal, N.S.) in Acadia. A trading post was established in Quebec in 1608. Meanwhile the English, moving to support their claims under Cabot's discoveries, attacked Port Royal (1614) and captured Quebec (1629). However, the French regained Quebec (1632), and through the Company of New France (Company of One Hundred Associates), began to exploit the fur trade and establish new settlements. The French were primarily interested in fur trading. Between 1608 and 1640, fewer than 300 settlers arrived. The sparse French settlements sharply contrasted with the relatively dense English settlements along the Atlantic coast to the south. Under a policy initiated by Champlain, the French supported the Huron in their warfare against the Iroquois; later in the 17th cent., when the Iroquois crushed the Huron, the French colony came near extinction. Exploration, however, continued. 。

In 1663, the Company of New France was disbanded by the French government, and the colony was placed under the rule of a royal governor, an intendant, and a bishop. The power exercised by these authorities may be seen in the careers of Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac, Jean Talon, and François Xavier de Laval, the first bishop of Quebec. There was, however, conflict between the rulers, especially over the treatment of the indigenous peoples—the bishop regarding them as potential converts, the governor as means of trade. Meanwhile, both missionaries, such as Jacques Marquette, and traders, such as Pierre Radisson and Médard Chouart des Groseilliers, were extending French knowledge and influence. The greatest of all the empire builders in the west was Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle, who descended the Mississippi to its mouth and who envisioned the vast colony in the west that was made a reality by men like Duluth, Bienville, Iberville, and Cadillac. 。

The French did not go unchallenged. The English had claims on Acadia, and the Hudson's Bay Company in 1670 began to vie for the lucrative fur trade of the West. When the long series of wars between Britain and France broke out in Europe, they were paralleled in North America by the French and Indian Wars. The Peace of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain Acadia, the Hudson Bay area, and Newfoundland. To strengthen their position the French built additional forts in the west (among them Detroit and Niagara). The decisive battle of the entire struggle took place in 1759, when Wolfe defeated Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham, bringing about the fall of Quebec to the British. Montreal fell in 1760. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France ceded all its North American possessions east of the Mississippi to Britain, while Louisiana went to Spain. 。

British North America 。

The French residents of Quebec strongly resented the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which imposed British institutions on them. Many of its provisions, however, were reversed by the Quebec Act (1774), which granted important concessions to the French and extended Quebec's borders westward and southward to include all the inland territory to the Ohio and the Mississippi. This act infuriated the residents of the Thirteen Colonies (the future United States). In 1775 the American Continental Congress had as its first act not a declaration of independence but the invasion of Canada. In the American Revolution the Canadians remained passively loyal to the British crown, and the effort of the Americans to take Canada failed dismally (see Quebec campaign). 。

Loyalists from the colonies in revolt (see United Empire Loyalists) fled to Canada and settled in large numbers in Nova Scotia and Quebec. In 1784, the province of New Brunswick was carved out of Nova Scotia for the loyalists. The result, in Quebec, was sharp antagonism between the deeply rooted, Catholic French Canadians and the newly arrived, Protestant British. To deal with the problem the British passed the Constitutional Act (1791). It divided Quebec into Upper Canada (present-day Ontario), predominantly British and Protestant, and Lower Canada (present-day Quebec), predominantly French and Catholic. Each new province had its own legislature and institutions. 。

This period was also one of further exploration. Alexander Mackenzie made voyages in 1789 to the Arctic Ocean and in 1793 to the Pacific, searching for the Northwest Passage. Mariners also reached the Pacific Northwest, and such men as Capt. James Cook, John Meares, and George Vancouver secured for Britain a firm hold on what is now British Columbia. During the War of 1812, Canadian and British soldiers repulsed several American invasions. The New Brunswick boundary (see Aroostook War) and the boundary W of the Great Lakes was disputed with the United States for a time, but since the War of 1812 the long border has generally been peaceful. 。

Rivalry between the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company erupted into bloodshed in the Red River Settlement and was resolved by amalgamation of the companies in 1821. The new Hudson's Bay Company then held undisputed sway over Rupert's Land and the Pacific West until U.S. immigrants challenged British possession of Oregon and obtained the present boundary (1846). After 1815 thousands of immigrants came to Canada from Scotland and Ireland. 。

Movements for political reform arose. In Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie struggled against the Family Compact. In Lower Canada, Louis J. Papineau led the French Canadian Reform party. There were rebellions in both provinces. The British sent Lord Durham as governor-general to study the situation, and his famous report (1839) recommended the union of Upper and Lower Canada under responsible government. The two Canadas were made one province by the Act of Union (1841) and became known as Canada West and Canada East. Responsible government was achieved in 1849 (it had been granted to the Maritime Provinces in 1847), largely as a result of the efforts of Robert Baldwin and Louis H. LaFontain。

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