confucianism-120

What do you know about Confucianism

Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history。

Ancient China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing,[2] the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt.[9]。

Prehistory

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest hominids in China date from 250,000 to 2.24 million years ago.[10][11] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 550,000 years. The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire.。

The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in China comes from Liujiang County, Guangxi, where a cranium has been found and dated at approximately 67,000 years old. Although much controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains,[12][13] a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in Okinawa, Japan has been dated to 16,600 to 18,250 years old, so modern humans probably reached China before that time.[citation needed]。

Dynastic rule

Main articles: Dynasties in Chinese history and Chinese sovereign。

Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia, but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province in 1959.[14] Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.。

Some of the thousands of life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 210 BC.The second dynasty, the loosely feudal Shang, settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 18th to the 12th century BC. They were invaded from the west by the Zhou, who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BC, until their centralized authority was slowly eroded by neighboring warlords. Many strong, independent states continually waged war with each other in the Spring and Autumn period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king.。

The first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, when the office of the Emperor was set up and the Chinese language was forcibly standardized. This state did not last long, as its legalist policies soon led to widespread rebellion.。

The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BC and 220 AD, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that would last to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia.。

After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the Three Kingdoms. Independent Chinese states of this period also opened diplomatic relations with Japan, introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 AD, China was reunited under the Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614) weakened it.。

A 10th–11th century Longquan stoneware vase from Zhejiang province, during the Song Dynasty. 。

Leshan Giant Buddha, 71 m (233 ft) tall, completed in the early 9th century during the Tang DynastyUnder the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith. The Tang Empire was at its height of power until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Shi Rebellion destroyed the prosperity of the empire. The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period in for philosophy and the arts. Landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and make trades of precious artworks. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism.。

In 1271, the Mongol leader and fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.[15] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty.[16] Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. Chosun Korea also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure. China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing during the early Ming Dynasty. The Ming fell to the Manchus in 1644, who then established the Qing Dynasty. When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels in 1644, the last Ming Emperor Chongzhen committed suicide. The Manchu then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.。

The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, the West in particular. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by British India was forced onto Qing China. Two Opium Wars with Britain weakened the Emperor's control.。

A corner tower of the Forbidden City at night; the palace was the residence for the imperial family from the reign of the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912.One result was the Taiping Civil War, which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by an idiosyncratic interpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least 20 million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First World War), with some estimates of up to two hundred million. Other costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–67), Nien Rebellion (1851–1868), Muslim Rebellion (1862–77), Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) and the Miao Rebellion (1854–73).[17][18] These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives each and led to disastrous results for the economy and the countryside.[19][20][21] The flow of British opium hastened the empire's decline. In the 19th century, the age of colonialism was at its height and the great Chinese Diaspora began. About 35 million overseas Chinese live in Southeast Asia today.[22] The famine in 1876-79 claimed between 9 and 13 million lives in northern China.[23] From 108 BC to 1911 AD, China experienced 1,828 famines,[24] or one per year, somewhere in the empire.[25]。

While China was wracked by continuous war, Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military and set its sights on Korea and Manchuria. Influenced by Japan, Korea declared independence from Qing China's suzerainty in 1894, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in the Qing Dynasty's cession of both Korea and Taiwan to Japan. Following this series of defeats, a reform plan for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Emperor Guangxu in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in Beijing. By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14 November 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi's own death. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor. Guangxu's consort, who became the Empress Dowager Longyu, signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913.。

Neo-Confucianism是什么意思

Confucianism is an ancient Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the early Chinese sage and philosopher Confucius. Its focus is primarily on secular ethics and morality, as well as the cultivation of the civilized individual that in turn would contribute to the establishment of a civilized society and ultimately world peace. Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. Some consider it to be the state religion of East Asian countries because of governmental promotion of Confucian values.。

The cultures most strongly influenced by Confucianism include those of China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Chinese people.。

A simple way to appreciate Confucian thought is to consider it as being based on varying levels of honesty. In practice, the elements of Confucianism accumulated over time and matured into the following forms:。

Ritual

In Confucianism the term "ritual" was soon extended to include secular ceremonial behavior before being used to refer to the propriety or politeness which colors everyday life. Rituals were codified and treated as a comprehensive system of norms. Confucius himself tried to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties. After his death, people regarded him as a great authority on ritual behaviors.。

It is important to note that "ritual" has a different meaning in the context of Confucianism, especially today, from its context in many religions. In Confucianism, the acts that people tend to carry out in every day life are considered ritual. Rituals are not necessarily regimented or arbitrary practices, but the routines that people often undergo knowingly or unknowingly through out their lives. Shaping the rituals in a way that leads to a content and healthy society, and to content and healthy people, is one purpose of Confucian philosophy.。

Relationships

One theme central to Confucianism is that of relationships, and the differing duties arising from the different status one held in relation to others. Individuals are held to simultaneously stand in different degrees of relationship with different people, namely, as a junior in relation to their parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to their younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe strong duties of reverence and service to their seniors, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. This theme consistently manifests itself in many aspects of East Asian cultures even to this day, with extensive filial duties on the part of children toward parents and elders, and great concern of parents toward their children.。

Social harmony -- the great goal of Confucianism -- thus results partly from every individual knowing his or her place in the social order and playing his or her part well. When Duke Jing of Qi asked about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony, Confucius replied,。

"There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son." (Analects XII, 11, tr. Legge).。

Filial piety

"Filial piety" (Chinese: 孝; pinyin: xiào) is considered among the greatest of virtues and must be shown towards both the living and the dead (ancestors). The term "filial", meaning "of a child", denotes the respect that a child, originally a son, should show to his parents. This relationship was extended by analogy to a series of five relationships (Chinese: 五伦; pinyin: wǔlún)[1]:。

Sovereign to subject 。

Parent to child 。

Elder to younger brother 。

Husband to wife 。

Friend to friend (Older friend is higher in rank/class than younger friend) 。

Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties were also extended to the dead, where the living stood as sons to their deceased family. This led to the veneration of ancestors.。

In time, filial piety was also built into the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit had committed the crime against a parent, while fathers often exercised enormous power over their children. Much the same was true of other unequal relationships.。

The main source of our knowledge of the importance of filial piety is The Book of Filial Piety, a work attributed to Confucius but almost certainly written in the third century BCE. Filial piety has continued to play a central role in Confucian thinking to the present day.。

Loyalty

Loyalty (Chinese: 忠; pinyin: zhōng) is the equivalent of filial piety on a different plane. It was particularly relevant for the social class, to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the only way for an ambitious young scholar to make his way in the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler's civil service. Like filial piety, however, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes of China. Confucius had advocated a sensitivity to the realpolitik of the class relations that existed in his time; he did not propose that "might makes right", but that a superior who had received the "Mandate of Heaven" (see below) should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude.。

In later ages, however, emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled.。

Loyalty was also an extension of one's duities to friends, family, and spouse. Loyalty to one's leader came first, then to one's family, then to one's spouse, and lastly to one's friends. Loyalty was considered one of the greater human virtues.。

Humanity

Confucius was concerned with people's individual development, which he maintained took place within the context of human relationships. Ritual and filial piety are the ways in which one should act towards others from an underlying attitude of humaneness. Confucius' concept of humaneness (Chinese: 仁; pinyin: rén) is probably best expressed in the Confucian version of the (Ethic of reciprocity) Golden Rule: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others;".。

Rén also has a political dimension. If the ruler lacks rén, Confucianism holds, it will be difficult if not impossible for his subjects to behave humanely. Rén is the basis of Confucian political theory: it presupposes an autocratic ruler, exhorted to refrain from acting inhumanely towards his subjects. An inhumane ruler runs the risk of losing the "Mandate of Heaven", the right to rule. Such a mandateless ruler need not be obeyed. But a ruler who reigns humanely and takes care of the people is to be obeyed strictly, for the benevolence of his dominion shows that he has been mandated by heaven. Confucius himself had little to say on the will of the people, but his leading follower Mencius did state on one occasion that the people's opinion on certain weighty matters should be polled.。

The gentleman

The term "Jūnzǐ" (Chinese: 君子; literally "nobleman") is crucial to classical Confucianism. The ideal of a "gentleman" or "perfect man" is that for which Confucianism exhorts all people to strive. A succinct description of the "perfect man" is one who "combines the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman" (CE). In modern times the masculine translation in English is also traditional and is still frequently used. A hereditary elitism was bound up with the concept, and gentlemen were expected to act as moral guides to the rest of society.。

They were to:

cultivate themselves morally; 。

show filial piety and loyalty where these are due; 。

cultivate humanity, or benevolence. 。

The great exemplar of the perfect gentleman is Confucius himself. Perhaps the greatest tragedy of his life was that he was never awarded the high official position which he desired, from which he wished to demonstrate the general well-being that would ensue if humane persons ruled and administered the state.。

The opposite of the Jūnzǐ was the Xiǎorén (Chinese: 小人; pinyin: xiǎorén; literally "small person"). The character 小 in this context means petty in mind and heart, narrowly self-interested, greedy, superficial, or materialistic.。

Rectification of names。

Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. Fundamentally, then, social disorder can stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution to this was Zhèngmíng (Chinese: 正名; pinyin: zhèngmíng; literally "rectification of terms"). He gave an explanation of zhengming to one of his disciples.。

Tsze-lu said, "The ruler of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government. What will you consider the first thing to be done?"。

The Master replied, "What is necessary is to rectify names."。

"So! indeed!" said Tsze-lu. "You are wide of the mark! Why must there be such rectification?"。

The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Yu! A superior man, in regard to what he does not know, shows a cautious reserve.。

If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. 。

If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. 。

When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish. 。

When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. 。

When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot. 。

Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect."。

(Analects XIII, 3, tr. Legge)。

最近脸上多了好多的痘痘，有什么办法可以祛痘呀？

Neo-Confucianism。

新儒学；道学;

例句:

1.

Neo-confucianism is more complex: it could interpret confucianism in ways that supportliberal democracy; or it could become the basis for a narrow chinese nationalism. 。

新儒家则更为复杂：它既可能按照赞同自由民主的方式解读儒家学说，也可能成为中国狭隘的民族主义的基石。

2.

Just as the study of marxism has been tightly supervised in china because of its role inthe party's ideological firmament, equally, neo-confucianism is being carefully managed. 。

就像马克思主义在因其在中国共产党意识领域发挥的作用而在中国受到严格监管一样，中国同样也对新儒家学说进行了精心管理。

儒家经典著作有哪些呢？

痘痘治疗和预防;

1）注意面部清洁：常用温水洗脸,因为冷水不易去除油脂,热水促进皮脂分泌,不用刺激性肥皂,硫磺香皂对痤疮有一定好处,不要用雪花膏和其它油脂类的化妆品.。

2）合理的饮食：多吃蔬菜和水果,少吃脂肪,糖类和辛辣等刺激性食物,保持大便通畅.。

3）不要用手去挤压粉刺,以免引起化脓发炎,脓疮破溃吸收后形成疤痕和色素沉着,影响美观。

4）治疗：用维甲酸,维胺脂,及维生素A等,能改善角化过程,将有助于减轻和消除痘痘.。

5）劳逸结合,保持精神愉快,对痘痘的治疗十分有益.。

6）分享达人◣ 十年尝尽灭痘血难终成功◢是生活化的阐述了一个女孩十年对抗自己痘痘的经历，故事来源于生活，假如你也是痘痘患者，不妨也来探索下，也许你就是这个故事的下一个主人公，一个自信快乐拥有心中梦想的天使。

7）吃海带防痘痘,经常适量地食用海带,有助于预防痘痘的发生.。

8)中药治疗上建议：

1, 硫磺,川军各等份,研细粉,用清水调和,敷于患处.每日2－3次.。

2,枯矾10克,硫磺,大黄各5克,黄连,黄柏各3克.冷开水100毫升浸泡1昼夜.每晚睡前将药液摇匀,涂于患部..。

..

..

College class

International Business School: accounting, financial management and practice.。

Professional settings。

The school has a computer science and technology, electronic science andtechnology, Chinese language and literature, Chinese history, chemistry,materials science and technology, philosophy, archaeology, 8 post doctoral research stations, 11 doctoral programs, 3 doctorate authorization two subjects(not including the first level discipline coverage point), 49 doctoral, 31 master's degree authorization level disciplines, 2 master's degree authorization two subjectspoint (not including the first level discipline coverage point), 148 master's degree authorization, 17 professional master's degree authorization; with 26 yuan(Department, Department), 84 undergraduate professional, involved science,engineering, literature, history, philosophy, economics, law, management,education, art and other 10 disciplines; the existing Chinese language andcomputer application technology, 2 national key disciplines, 25 provincial and ministerial level key disciplines.。

The school teaching 5 project won the 2011 provincial "quality engineering" project(News) Department of Education announced in 2011 the provincial teaching"quality project" of the evaluation results, the school organization to declare theproject a total of 5 approved. "Environmental Science" professional ", new energymaterials and devices" professional provincial special professional project; "the practice of mechanical manufacturing technology training center" by the provincialdemonstrative practice center project; "outstanding engineers plans" and"excellent legal talents plan" by the provincial personnel training model innovationproject of experimentation area.。

Assets

1, 1846154100 yuan of fixed assets。

2, covers an area of 2159116 square meters。

3, a building area of 1240924 square meters。

One (1) of which the teaching and scientific research and auxiliary houses 474138 square meters。

(2) administrative office space 88243 square meters。

(3) the student dormitory 352766 square meters。

(4) the staff residential 183261 square meters。

4, teaching and research equipment worth 416079900 yuan。

5, book 3278900。

6, teaching computer 11142。

7, multimedia classroom seating 30895, speech room seating 1038 [8] teaching facilities。

The school now has 34 undergraduate teaching laboratory, one of the 5 basic course experimental teaching center for the provincial experimental teaching demonstration center of basic course; practice base 120; composed of 4 branchlibrary has a total area of 74702 square meters; indoor and outdoor sports facilitiesconstruction area of 182191.46 square meters; the price of teaching and research equipment 800 yuan more than the total value of 280998200 yuan, teaching and research equipment average value 10410 yuan; multimedia classroom seating 23605, speech room seats 1242; computer network covering the whole school, the realization of network teaching and scientific research, literature search and officemanagement; School of literature resources, and modern educational technology,network, analysis test, measurement and control platform, engineering and life science exhibition halls and other public service platform.。

3 teachers of Anhui University, the existing staff of more than 2600 people, of whichthe teaching staff of 1500 people, senior professional and technical titles more than 800 people; and hired academician and hired Professor 28, National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young winner 1, countries "one thousand people plan" Professor 1, National Teacher Education 1, the provincial teaching masters 12, appeared in the "national key talent project" and "young experts with outstanding contributions to the country" in 5, in the new century talents by the Ministry of education support program in 10, "the scholar" Professor and Professor9, selected in Anhui province "Hundred Talents Program" 1, expert enjoying theState Council and the Anhui provincial government special allowance of 133, Anhui province academic technology leaders of 53, selected the academic leader of Anhui province 48.。

Liu Wendian, Yao Yongpu, Wang Xinggong, Tao Yin, Chen Wangdao, ChengYansheng, Ding Xuxian, Yu Dafu, Zhou Yutong, Zhang Yi, Zhou Jianren, simianhave taught at Anhui University and chaired the school administration.。

4 school Jiaorong Jiaomao Anhui University campus beautiful scenery, beautiful environment, is the city of Hefei "safe and civilized campus" and the 400 best afforestation of one of the units. The school has four campuses and a universityscience and Technology Park, the campus area of 3200 acres. The [5] Badge。

The late Anhui University original scheduled for 80 years. The overall pattern is circular, Center School。

The teaching building deformation, "1928" the school year of establishment, the symbol of the university history; "Anhui University" in the text are English arcaround the central pattern.。

In 2003 September, the Anhui University art department enabled by new teachersschool badge pattern design. The spirit of continuous, stable, modern and simple principle, the new badge and maintain the original the circular composition (the"access", "Yuantong"), to retain the original logo used by Mao Zedong Englishnames, translation and its time names, also retained the school after the reconstruction of teaching building, a landmark as the main composition, and make appropriate deformation, the basic characteristics of both maintaining the originaldepth, overlapping, extension, viewing from east to west and with the new Qing court school's main buildings are similar, in the old and new campus culture come down in one continuous line, building looks like a book, like a crown, in front of the building with a set of half round crown, more tall, deep and full of vitality.。

School motto

Sincerity to the firm learned practice。

The 8 characters, 6 characters from "the book of rites doctrine of the mean"."Good" is the highest moral realm of the traditional Confucianism; "learned""practice" is labeled as "honest", is the guide to "sincerity" realm. "To establish"2 words derived from the request of a person's character school and age, with"sincere" indispensable factors to achieve the realm of willpower. Just for today,"。

急求！一篇2000字的英文论文 题目TCM in western world

儒家经典主要有十三经、四书、吴京。具体如下：

1、四书：

《⼤学》（《礼记》中⼀篇）、《中庸》（《礼记》中⼀篇）、《论语》、《孟⼦》。

2、五经：

《周易》、《尚书》、《诗经》、《礼记》、《左传》。

注：到南宋时期，当时的经学家又对传统《五经》进行了补充和重新分类，统称《十三经》，即：《周易》、《诗经》、《尚书》、《周礼》、《春秋左传》、《春秋公羊传》、《春秋谷梁传》、《仪礼》、《礼记》、《孝经》、《论语》、《孟子》、《尔雅》，作为读书人必学的十三本儒家经典。

儒家的影响深远：

儒家是中国古代自从董仲舒“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”之后最有影响的学派之一。做为华夏固有价值系统的一种表现的儒家，并非通常意义上的学术或学派。一般来说，先秦时，儒家也只是诸子百家之一，与其它诸子百家一样地位本无所谓主从关系。

儒家思想对中国文化的影响很深，几千年来的封建社会，中国人代代传授的不外《四书》、《五经》。中国人基因中的责任思想（以天下为己任）、忠孝思想（仁、义、礼、智、信）、恕的思想（己所不欲，勿施于人）、伦理思想（修身、齐家、治国、平天下）都是儒家思想与专制统治结合的结果。

以上内容参考：百度百科-儒家

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