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流式细胞术

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Image:03wiki-zn-frontpage-icon.gif流式细胞术正在翻译。

目前已翻译90%，原文在en:flow cytometry。希望您积极翻译与修订。

流式细胞术(英文flow cytometry)是一种生物学技术，用于对悬浮于流体中的微小颗粒进行计数和分选。这种技术可以用来对流过光学或电子检测器的一个个细胞进行连续的多种参数分析。

目录

[隐藏]

* 1 原理

* 2 流式细胞仪(flow cytometer)。

* 3 应用

* 4 参见

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原理

一束单色光（通常是激光）照到流体力学聚焦的一股流体上。若干个检测器瞄向流束和激光相交的这个点，其中一个和激光在同一直在线（称作前散射(FSC)），其它几个和激光垂直（旁散射(SSC)和一个或几个荧光监测器）。当每个悬浮颗粒通过光束时会按某种方式把光散射，同时所带有的荧光化合物被激发并发射出频率低于激发光的荧光。这些散射光和荧光的组合数据被检测器记录，根据各检测器亮度的波动（每个细胞会显出一个散射或荧光的峰）就能够推算出每个颗粒的物理和化学性质。前散射与细胞体积相关，而旁散射取决于颗粒的内部复杂程度（比如核的形状、胞质内颗粒的种类或者末的粗糙程度）。

可以检测的参数有：

* 细胞的体积和形态复杂程度。

* 细胞中的色素

* DNA（细胞周期分析、细胞动力学、细胞增殖等）

* RNA

* 染色体分析和分选（文库构建、染色体涂染）

* 蛋白质

* 细胞表面抗原（CD标记）

* 胞内抗原（各种细胞因子(cytokine)、次级媒介等）

* 核抗原

* 酶活性

* pH，胞内离子化的钙、镁，膜电势。

* 膜流动性

* 细胞凋亡(apoptosis)（定量检测DNA降解、线粒体膜电位、通透性变化）

* 细胞存活能力

* 监测细胞电通透性

* 氧爆作用(oxidative burst)。

* 研究癌细胞中的多重耐药性(multi-drug resistance, MDR)。

* 谷胱甘肽

* 各种组合（DNA/表面抗原等等）

这个列表非常长，而且在不断地扩展。

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流式细胞仪(flow cytometer)。

流式细胞仪又称荧光激活细胞分选器、荧光活化细胞分类计（FACS，Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter）。

现代的流式细胞仪每秒可以实时检测几千个颗粒，并且可以主动分离具有不同特性的颗粒。

流式细胞仪和显微镜比较像，但能够对大量的单个细胞利用一组参数进行高通量的自动量化。固体组织需要在检测前制备成单细胞的悬浮液。

一个流式细胞仪包括五个组成部分：

* 细胞流动系统：液流（鞘液(sheath fluid)）携带细胞，使颗粒以串流形式通过光束。

* 光源：有通常的灯（汞或氙）、高功率水冷的激光源（氩、氪、染料激光）、低功率气冷激光（氩(488nm)，红氦氖(633nm)，绿氦氖，氦镉(紫外)）、偶极激光（蓝、绿、红、紫）。

* 检测和模数转换(analogue-to-digital conversion, ADC)系统：产生前散射、旁散射光和荧光的信号。

* 放大系统，线性或对数放大。

* 计算机，用于分析信号。

早期的流式细胞仪主要是实验设备，但目前仪器和相关的试剂有了很广的市场。不同厂商的仪器特性也不同，主要的厂商和品牌如下：

* Beckman-Coulter (ex-Coulter): Epics XL/XL-MCL; Epics Altra (Hypersort) (IBM-PC compatible platforms)。

* Becton, Dickinson: (FACS's): FACSCAlibur, FACScan, FACSort, FASCSVantage (Mac OS platform) FACS Canto, LSRII, Aria, DiVa (PC PLatform)。

* Cytomation: MoFlo, Cyan (IBM-PC platform)。

* Partec/Dako: Galaxy; PAS; CCA; PA (IBM-PC compatible platforms)。

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应用

流式细胞术在很多领域中都有应用，包括分子生物学、病理学、免疫学和海洋生物学等。在分子生物学中，它主要用于荧光标记的抗体。特异性的抗体与靶细胞上的抗原结合，能够通过流式细胞仪研究这些细胞的特别信息。这在医学（尤其是器官移植、血液学、肿瘤免疫学和化疗、遗传学）中具有很广泛的应用。

现代的流式细胞仪具有多个激光和荧光检测器（目前商业用仪器的记录是4个激光和14个检测器），可以用于多个抗体标记，以便在表现型中更准确地区别某个靶群体。

流式细胞仪也是很有用的分选仪器。当细胞/颗粒通过时，可以被选择性地加上某种电荷，并在通过电磁场后偏转，从不同出口流出。这样就可以从一个混合物中高速（理论上可达到每秒大约9万个细胞）准确地分离开四类细胞。

由流式细胞仪得到的数据可以画成一维的柱状图或者二位或者三维的散点图。

The data coming from flow-cytometers can be plotted in 1-D to produce histograms or seen in 2D as dot plots or in 3D with newer software. The regions on these plots can be sequentially separated by a series of subset extractions which are termed gates. Specific gating protocols exist for diagnostic and clinical purposes especially in relation to haematology. The plots are often made on logarithmic scales. Because of overlaping fluorescent dyes, emission spectrum generated interfering signals by detectors signals have to be compensated electronically.。

海洋中主要的光合生物之一——占海洋浮游生物总细胞数将近1/3的原绿球藻(Prochlorococcus)就是通过流式细胞术发现的。因为其细胞小，叶绿素含量少，在通常的荧光观察中被迅速漂白(bleach)，但由于在流式细胞术中细胞通过光束的时间极短，胞内叶绿素的荧光可被观察到。

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参见

* 荧光显微镜

* 荧光活化细胞分选

取自"http://wikipedia.cnblog.org/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E5%BC%8F%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E8%A1%93"。

页面分类: 待翻译文章 | 细胞生物学 | 实验室技术 | 解剖病理学 | 血液学 | 医学检验。

求17-18世纪英国文学（in english）

90后文字第一精灵任亮的百度名片。

任亮

任亮，男，大陆作家，1990年出生，山东莱芜人，曾用笔名：任十一少，莫小贝。和平主义者。现为皇储文学创作联盟理事长，冰刻工作室主编，90后作家联谊会成员，90后诗歌群落成员，国际绿色和平组织志愿者。曾任职欧雪原创小说网出版频道主编。 现在主要创作青春历史文艺作品。作品多见于新浪网，小说阅读网，红袖添香小说网，《知音》，《特别关注爱你》等。

编辑本段人物简介

中文名： 任亮 出生日期： 1990年1月9日。

国籍： 中国 职业： 作家，主编。

名族： 汉 信仰： 和平主义

出生地： 山东莱芜 代表作品： 《花落一城》

编辑本段主要作品

【2006年】《谪仙皇储》（原名《天之骄神》）：首发于起点中文网一部夭折的作品，奇幻爱情。 【2007年】《南郭先生后传》：一个三幕话剧，改编于2001年的《南郭先生》。 【2008年】《祥瑞纪年》：原名《河图洛书》，高三暑假闭门不出，完成其创作，后发于腾讯读书。 【2008年】《和平七章》：一首和平诗，体现90后一代对和平的哲思，和平诗在90后诗歌创作中是比较少见的。 【2009年】《三生石花》：现发于红袖添香中文网站，一个唯美的，错综复杂的爱情奇幻故事。 【2010年】《绿色天空》《幽灵》《神话》《青春应该努力点》《光澈鉴》《毁灭》《不死的太阳》等一系列诗歌杂文发表。 【2010年】《花落一城》：首发于新浪网，一开始便引起轰动，上传1万多字点击率已经近达到50万，在新浪读书同类作品中排行稳居前列。（目前正创作中） 【2010年】《诛仙略传》：首发小说阅读网。（现已停止创作）

编辑本段主要事迹

· 2006年6月写长篇小说《天之骄神》发表在起点中文网后改名《谪仙皇储》（未完本）。 · 2007年开始在青春奇幻文学杂志发表文章，向中国青春奇幻文学进军。在2007年用笔名莫小贝，雪灵等在《知音》《特别关注·爱你》等各类杂志发表文章。 · 2007年5月改编2001年创作的《南郭先生》改为三幕剧《南郭先生后传》。 · 2008年6月，创作《祥瑞纪年》（原名《河图洛书》）发于腾讯读书。 · 2008年6月，创办皇储文学工作室并兼任总编，担任第一届“皇储杯”文学大赛总评委。 · 2009年3月，结识中国作协最年轻的会员王虹虹。 · 2009年7月，重组皇储文学创作联盟（前身天之骄神奇幻文学联盟），担任理事长，兼皇储文学社首席。 · 2009年7月，成为国际绿色和平组织志愿者，在自己博客及各大论坛极力宣传绿色和平，呼吁禁止输出有毒物质到发展中国家，强烈谴责环境污染、地区冲突、局部战争，提倡建立无核化绿色世界、保护地球水质卫生及其各生物安全及多样性持续性发展。 · 2009年8月，担任第一届跃跃欲试文学大赛评委，首届“华年杯”征文比赛名誉顾问。 · 2009年9月，第二届“皇储杯”文学大赛总评委，兼职原文小说网网络编辑。 · 2009年11月，担任山东某高校大学生记者团负责人。 · 2010年2月，构思创作《花落一城》在新浪网首发便引起轰动，上传1万多字点击率已经近达到50万，在新浪读书同类作品中排行稳居前列。（目前正创作中） · 2010年3月，加入原筱菲的“春韵·华语校园文学联盟·90后诗歌群落”。 · 2010年5月，加入欧雪原创小说网担任出版频道主编。 · 2010年6月，经90后领军人物李军洋审核批准同意成为90后作家文化沙龙（后改名90后作家联谊会）成员。 · 2010年7月，加入90后作家领军人物易涵晨所组建的冰刻工作室担任主编，主要编著青春文学合集。 · 2010年8月，支持响应英国剑桥大学霍金教授的警告，呼吁社会保护地球：我们只有一个地球，地球上的资源是有限的。我们无限量的索取，势必会发生一场灾难，而灾难是全人类的。 ·2010年9月，呼吁社会，保护作家著作权益，提倡支持正版，打击盗版，共建和谐文明社会。

编辑本段凤凰缘

任亮与凤凰有着不解之缘。任亮出生于有着“八宝凤凰城”之称的莱芜，民间称凤城。任亮对凤凰极是喜爱，字号凤凰公子，凤凰阁主，其博客，官方网站，空间均以凤凰阁为名。所就读大学位于凤凰路北首，学校后山其名为“凤凰山”，山上有楼阁，其名为“金凤阁”和“银凤阁”。 曾有内部消息称任亮喜欢站于凤凰阁极顶观望凤城整个风水走势。据皇储传媒称，任亮家中有棵梧桐树，有梧桐招凤凰之意。

编辑本段《花落一城》

《花落一城》英文名《The flower falls a city》，目前正努力创作中。

作品简介

这部书以唯美的笔调描绘了任飞扬的前半生的人生经历。本书涉及家庭纠葛, 亲情爱情，伦理道德,亲情爱情，民族大义，同时描写了民国初期的芸芸众生。本书既是个人奋斗的情感史诗,也是一曲民族花卉业的悠长挽歌。 This book with aesthetic style Renfeiyang represents the first half of life experience. This involves affection, love and family dispute, ethics, and the Chinese nation's sense of honor, love family and describes the early minguo justification. This book is the individual struggle, but also a emotional epics of ethnic floral aromas. 《花落一城》

作品节选

Chapter1 凤凰山脉 Part1。

凤凰山脉，巍峨高耸，虎踞中华，山阴处有大河“荒流”，山阳乃重镇“洛江城”，扼天下咽喉，地理位置十分重要。 山脉绵延千里，峰峦起伏，后山密林，飞瀑奇石，珍奇异兽，罕见于人世。景色也颇为优美，宛似仙境，故闻名天下。它最有名的，却是那珍花奇葩。密林幽境之中，多产奇花。奇花绝美芳馨，实为天材地宝。古之圣贤、君子多以兰芷自比，常人对其也是万分喜爱，除花色美丽之外，还有一个原因，便是奇花有极大的经济利益。……

Chapter1 凤凰山脉 Part5。

清早很冷，风依旧凛冽。昏暗的天穹转眼间，已有些许光亮。苍天与凤凰山脉相接的地方出现了一道红霞。红霞慢慢扩大，越来越亮，恍若凤凰的羽翼，光焰四射。太阳就要从天际边缘升起来了，飞扬不知何时醒的，目不转睛地望着那里的炫丽红霞。太阳离开了地平线，夺目灿然，仿佛是一只浴火凤凰，威仪天下，睥睨世间，直冲云霄。万道金光向天地八荒迸射而去，一切黑暗阴霾，随之消散无踪。……

Chapter2神秘花园 part1。

已进深夜，辉煌的银河，只剩下了几颗孤独的星子，微弱的光芒透过轩窗轻柔的洒在任飞扬的床头上。任飞扬悠悠醒来，睁开惺忪的双眼，愣愣地望着那遥远的星光。那飘渺的星光好似有种魔力，使任飞扬恍若呆了一般。……

Chapter2神秘花园 part5。

夜晚，月光如水。任飞扬独自绕着高墙，慢慢行走在悠长的路上。寂寥的星子也不再出来，光秃秃的夜空只有一个盘子大的月亮，显得突兀而诡异。路边的青草沙沙地摇动，恍若里面有凶恶的长蛇或者是强横的怪兽。任飞扬害怕黑夜，正因为害怕，他才去面对。任何微弱的声响都会让他一惊一乍，毛骨悚然，就这样，他不知走了多久，也不知走了多远。……

流式细胞仪的价格

Chapter 4 English Literature of the 17th Century I.A Historical Background。

II.The Overview of the Literature （1640-1688）

1. The revolution period。

（1） The metaphysical poets;。

（2） The Cavalier poets.。

（3） Milton: the literary and philosophical heritage of the Renaissance merged with Protestant political and moral conviction。

2. The restoration period.。

（1） The restoration of Charles II ushered in a literature characterized by reason, moderation, good taste, deft management, and simplicity. （school of Ben Jonson）

（2） The ideals of impartial investigation and scientific experimentation promoted by the newly founded Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge （1662） were influential in the development of clear and simple prose as an instrument of rational communication.。

（3） The great philosophical and political treatises of the time emphasize rationalism.。

（4） The restoration drama.。

（5） The Age of Dryden.。

III.John Milton。

1. Life: educated at Cambridge—visiting the continent—involved into the revolution—persecuted—writing epics.。

2. Literary career.。

（1） The 1st period was up to 1641, during which time he is to be seen chiefly as a son of the humanists and Elizabethans, although his Puritanism is not absent. L'Allegre and IL Pens eroso （1632） are his early masterpieces, in which we find Milton a true offspring of the Renaissance, a scholar of exquisite taste and rare culture. Next came Comus, a masque. The greatest of early creations was Lycidas, a pastoral elegy on the death of a college mate, Edward King.。

（2） The second period is from 1641 to 1654, when the Puritan was in such complete ascendancy that he wrote almost no poetry. In 1641, he began a long period of pamphleteering for the puritan cause. For some 15 years, the Puritan in him alone ruled his writing. He sacrificed his poetic ambition to the call of the liberty for which Puritans were fighting.。

（3） The third period is from 1655 to 1671, when humanist and Puritan have been fused into an exalted entity. This period is the greatest in his literary life, epics and some famous sonnets. The three long poems are the fruit of the long contest within Milton of Renaissance tradition and his Puritan faith. They form the greatest accomplishments of any English poet except Shakespeare. In Milton alone, it would seem, Puritanism could not extinguish the lover of beauty. In these works we find humanism and Puritanism merged in magnificence.。

3. Major Works

（1） Paradise Lost。

a. the plot.

b. characters.

c. theme: justify the ways of God to man.。

（2） Paradise Regained.。

（3） Samson Agonistes.。

4. Features of Milton's works.。

（1） Milton is one of the very few truly great English writers who is also a prominent figure in politics, and who is both a great poet and an important prose writer. The two most essential things to be remembered about him are his Puritanism and his republicanism.。

（2） Milton wrote many different types of poetry. He is especially a great master of blank verse. He learned much from Shakespeare and first used blank verse in non-dramatic works.。

（3） Milton is a great stylist. He is famous for his grand style noted for its dignity and polish, which is the result of his life-long classical and biblical study.。

（4） Milton has always been admired for his sublimity of thought and majesty of expression.。

IV.John Bunyan

1. life:

（1） puritan age;。

（2） poor family;。

（3） parliamentary army;。

（4） Baptist society, preacher;。

（5） prison, writing the book.。

2. The Pilgrim Progress。

（1） The allegory in dream form.。

（2） the plot.

（3） the theme.

V. Metaphysical Poets and Cavalier Poets.。

1. Metaphysical Poets。

The term “metaphysical poetry” is commonly used to designate the works of the 17th century writers who wrote under the influence of John Donne. Pressured by the harsh, uncomfortable and curious age, the metaphysical poets sought to shatter myths and replace them with new philosophies, new sciences, new words and new poetry. They tried to break away from the conventional fashion of Elizabethan love poetry, and favoured in poetry for a more colloquial language and tone, a tightness of expression and the single-minded working out of a theme or argument.。

2. Cavalier Poets。

The other group prevailing in this period was that of Cavalier poets. They were often courtiers who stood on the side of the king, and called themselves “sons” of Ben Jonson. The Cavalier poets wrote light poetry, polished and elegant, amorous and gay, but often superficial. Most of their verses were short songs, pretty madrigals, love fancies characterized by lightness of heart and of morals. Cavalier poems have the limpidity of the Elizabethan lyric without its imaginative flights. They are lighter and neater but less fresh than the Elizabethan's.。

VI.John Dryden.。

1. Life:

（1） the representative of classicism in the Restoration.。

（2） poet, dramatist, critic, prose writer, satirist.。

（3） changeable in attitude.。

（4） Literary career—four decades.。

（5） Poet Laureate。

2. His influences.。

（1） He established the heroic couplet as the fashion for satiric, didactic, and descriptive poetry.。

（2） He developed a direct and concise prose style.。

（3） He developed the art of literary criticism in his essays and in the numerous prefaces to his poems.。

英语文学简史 http://englishliterature.blogbus.com/logs/19880460.html。

罗马的英语介绍

产品名称 流式细胞仪

英文名称 Flow Cytometer 。

国产/进口 进口

产地/品牌 美国贝克曼库尔特有限公司 。

型号 EPICS® ALTRA™ 。

参考报价

销售商 贝克曼库尔特香港有限公司 。

流式细胞仪

【性能参数】

EPICS® ALTRA™ Flow Cytometer with HyPerSort Cell Sorting。

DATA Management。

FlowCentreTM流式工作中心与建于Windows平台的EXPOTM32软件系统相配合，建立了强大的、多任务操作的工作环境，这一工作环境可用于数据采集、分析以及结果报告。

A CHOICE OF Sorters。

小型、经济的空冷激光允许分选速度提高到10,000个／秒，为大多数应用领域提供了充足的空间，如果您的购买能力允许，或者研究工作需要，HyPerSort 系统将在更高分选速度的前提下提供更高效、精确的分选效果。

DESIGNED Simplicity。

操作人员可以直接检查或更换光学滤片以便获得更广泛的荧光染料组合，不需要重新进行光路校准。

CONFIGURATION Optics。

ALTRA多光源选择为用户当前及未来的研究工作提供最多的匹配空间。

MULTIPLE Lasers。

光学工作台及工业标准组件允许多激光组合支持应用工作，经济的空冷激光及高功率的水冷激光为使用者提供多种选择，使用者可以极方便地在多光束间进行联合使用或相互切换。

QUARTZ FIOW Cells。

贝克曼库尔特公司在行业中率先设计高灵敏度石英流动室SortSense，这项技术允许使用者在标准及高速分选模式中使用任何参数，包括侧向散射光。

INTELLIGENT Soting。

崭新的ALTRA分选模式使得在保证得率的前提下最终达到99％的纯度，使用AccuSORT模式可以将特定数量的细胞分别选人微孔板中不同的微孔。标准分选模式与高速分选模式之间可以极方便地切换。

Sort LOCK

SortLOCK功能真正实现了无需守候分选，监视屏直观地实时显示分选监控状态，确保分选结果的可信度。

SPECFICATIONS

检测参数

前向-LOG，INT及PEAK。

PMT 1—LOG，INT

PMT2-PMT 5-LOG，INT，PEAK。

两个附加信号通道(AUX)可以任意附加到PMT2-PMT5；可选GATE AMP功能。

参数，可指定至任意的PEAK信号。

1043寸数放大器

数据采集

27项参数中，12项参数可以同步采集。

一个前向散射信号

二个AUX信号

TIME时间参数

RATIO

PRISM

激光器选择

空冷激光

Cyonicsl5mW，488nm氩离子激光。

MellesGriot氦氖激光,633nm，10mW。

Omnichromee氦氖激光,325nm，20mW。

MellesGriot氦氖激光，544nm，1．5mW。

Coherent Enterprise II627氩离子激光，UV(50mW)，488nm(180mW)。

可选带LASERPURE 5i空冷操作系统。

Coherentlnnova 70系列、90系列、300系列激光。

流动室

76 µm SortSense石英流动室。

100，140pmSortSense石英流动室。

250 µm Biohazard石英流动室。

51，61，76，100 and 150 µm jet-in-air。

高速分选系统流动室

70µm及76µmHyPerSortSense石英流动室 。

光束成型器及光电倍增管

光斑大小(µm) 高x宽(µm)。

12x51 15x60

12x151 15x80

12x70* 15x80

8x151* 10x80

6．5x151 8x80

6 x 112 15x80

17x34 40x80

*可选件

光电倍增管(PMT)光谱检测范围300-800nm，电压调整0-2000V。

样品管

多种规格的样品管选择：12X75、12X76、13X100，保证在进行大量。

样本分选时，避免频繁更换样本管。

分选

标准套提供

分选纯度大于99％，该分选纯度的速度前提为10,000个／秒(SortSense)。

与15，000个／秒(Jet-in-Air)9种分选模式，包括3种ALTRASort分选模式，同步提供大于99％纯度，大于99％回收率及大于98％的生存能力；Enrichment模式，以及AccuSortTM Exact Count模式用于分选矩阵建立及AUTOCLONE。

HyPerSort System可选件提供。

在速度为25,000个／秒时分选纯度大于98％，回收率大于95％及生存能力大于97％。

灵敏度

<100MESF(Spherotech Beads)。

价格64万

Rome, Ital. Roma, city (1991 pop. 2,775,250), capital of Italy and see of the pope, whose residence, Vatican City, is a sovereign state within the city of Rome. Rome is also the capital of Latium, a region of central Italy, and of Rome prov. It lies on both banks of the Tiber and its affluent, the Aniene, in the Campagna di Roma, between the Apennine Mts. and the Tyrrhenian Sea. Called the Eternal City, it is one of the world's richest cities in history and art and one of its great cultural, religious, and intellectual centers.。

The rise of Rome from an insignificant pastoral settlement to perhaps the world's most successful empire—supreme as a lawgiver and organizer, holding sway over virtually all the then-known world W of Persia, on which it left a permanent imprint of its material and cultural achievements—is one of the great epics of history. Whatever its fortunes throughout history, Rome has remained the symbol of European civilization. Because of the complexity of the subject matter, the following article is divided into several sections, and additional information will be found in the articles to which there are cross references. See also Roman art; Roman architecture; Latin literature; Roman religion.。

The Modern City。

In the past half century Rome has expanded well beyond the walls started in the 3d cent. by Emperor Aurelian, and it now extends north to the Aniene. Long sections of the ancient walls have been preserved, however, and archaeology remains an essential element of modern city-planning in Rome. Ancient marble columns and ruins rising beside modern apartments and offices, noisy boulevards, and luxurious villas and gardens characterize the modern city of Rome. As in ancient times, the larger section of Rome lies on the left bank of the Tiber, which intersects the city in three wide curves and is spanned by over 20 bridges.。

Economy

As in ancient times Rome is a center of transportation. It is the focus of international traffic by road, rail, sea (at the port of Civitavecchia), and air (at Leonardo da Vinci international airport at Fiumicino) and is as well a cultural, religious, political, and commercial center of international importance. Public transportation in Rome is provided by an elaborate bus system. A subway, the Metropolitana, was opened in 1955. Rome's large number of automobiles has caused serious traffic congestion, and in the 1970s and 80s various attempts were made to deal with the problem, including the banning of traffic in certain parts of the city. The economy of Rome depends to a very large extent on the tourist trade. The city is also a center of banking, insurance, printing, publishing, and fashion. Italy's movie industry (founded in 1936) is located at nearby Cinecitta.。

Landmarks and Institutions。

Aside from modern residential quarters, the right-bank section of Rome contains Vatican City, including Saint Peter's Church, the Castel Sant' Angelo, and the ancient quarter of Trastevere. In describing the larger left-bank section one may use the Piazza Venezia, a central square, as a convenient point of departure. It lies at the foot of the old Capitol (see Capitoline Hill) and borders on the huge monument to King Victor Emmanuel II and on the Palazzo Venezia, a Renaissance palace from the balcony of which Mussolini used to address the crowds. A broad avenue, the Via dei Fori Imperiali, runs from the Piazza Venezia SE to the Colosseum, leaving the Emperors' Fora and at a distance the Church of St. Peter in Chains (San Pietro in Vincoli) to the left, and the Capitol and the ancient Forum to the right. From the Colosseum the Via di San Gregorio continues south past the Arch of Constantine and the Baths of Caracalla to the Appian Way. There, as in other places on the outskirts of Rome, are large catacombs. From the Piazza Venezia another modern thoroughfare, the Via del Mare, leads southwestward to the Tiber and then east past the Basilica of St. Paul's Outside the Walls (San Paolo fuori le Mure) to Ostia, Rome's ancient port now blocked by silt, to the sea at Lido di Roma.。

The narrow and busy Via del Corso leads N from the Piazza Venezia past the Piazza Colonna (now the heart of Rome) to the Piazza del Popolo at the gate of the old Flaminian Way. East of the Piazza del Popolo are the Pincian Hill, commanding one of the finest views of Rome, and the famous Borghese Villa. In the widest westward bend of the Tiber, W of the Via del Corso, is the Campo Marzio quarter (anciently, Campus Martius), where most of the medieval buildings are located; there also are the Pantheon (now a church) and the parliament buildings. To the east of the Via del Corso the fashionable Via Condotti leads to the Piazza di Spagna; a flight of 132 steps ascends from that square to the Church of the Santa Trinità dei Monti and the Villa Medici. The Quirinal palace is NE of the Piazza Venezia. In the southeastern section, near the gate of San Giovanni, are the Lateran buildings.。

As an educational center Rome possesses—aside from the Univ. of Rome (founded 1303)—the colleges of the church, several academies of fine arts, and the Accademia di Santa Cecilia (founded 1584), the world's oldest academy of music. The opera house is one of Europe's grandest. The various institutes of the Univ. of Rome were formerly scattered throughout the city but were transferred in 1935 to the northeastern section.。

Among the countless churches of Rome there are five patriarchal basilicas—St. Peter's, St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major (Santa Maria Maggiore), St. Lawrence Outside the Walls, and St. Paul's Outside the Walls. With the exception of St. Mary Major, the basilicas and other ancient churches occupy the sites of martyrs' tombs. Characteristic of the old Roman churches are their fine mosaics (4th–12th cent.) and the use of colored marble for decoration, introduced in the 12th cent. by the workers in marble known as Cosmati. Rome's first mosque opened in 1995.。

Among Rome's many palaces and villas the Farnese Palace (begun 1514) and the Farnesina (1508–11) are particularly famous; others, all dating from the 17th cent., are those of the great Roman families, the Colonna, Chigi, Torlonia, and Doria. Rome is celebrated for its beautiful Renaissance and baroque fountains, such as the ornate Fontana di Trevi (18th cent.). Its richest museums and libraries are in the Vatican. Others include the National (in the Villa Giulia), Capitoline, and Torlonia museums, notable for their antiquities; and the Borghese, Corsini, Doria, and Colonna collections of paintings.。

Rome before Augustus。

Ancient Rome was built on the east, or left, bank of the Tiber on elevations (now much less prominent) emerging from the marshy lowlands of the Campagna. The seven hills of the ancient city are the Palatine, roughly in the center, with the Capitoline to the northwest and the Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, and Aventine in an outlying north-southwest curve. The Pincian, N of the Quirinal, is not included among the seven. In the westward bend of the Tiber, W of the Quirinal, lies the Martian Field (Campus Martius), facing the Vatican across the Tiber. On the side of the Tiber opposite the Palatine is the Janiculum, a ridge running north and south, which was fortified in early times.。

Early in the first millennium B.C. the Tiber divided the Italic peoples from the Etruscans in the north and west (see Etruscan civilization). Not far to the north were the borders between the Sabines and the Latins; the Sabines were closely related to Roman life from the very beginning. The hills of Rome, free from the malaria that had been the bane of the low-lying plains of Latium, were a healthful and relatively safe place to live and a meeting ground for Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. In the 8th cent. B.C., the fortified elevation of the Palatine was probably taken by Etruscans, who amalgamated the tiny hamlets about the Palatine into a city-state. Tradition tells of the founding of Rome by Romulus in 753 B.C. (hence the dating ab urbe condita, or AUC, i.e., from the founding of the city), and of the Tarquin family, the Etruscan royal house. It was probably Etruscan rule that civilized Rome and gave it the hegemony of Latium.。

The Roman Republic。

The Romans overthrew their foreign rulers c.500 B.C. and established the Roman republic, which lasted four centuries. The patrician class controlled the government, but the plebs (who comprised by far the major portion of the population) were allowed to elect the two patrician consuls, who held joint power. The vitality of the patricians was remarkable, and long after political power had been granted to the plebs, experienced patricians continued to govern Rome.。

As the majority realized its power and the aristocracy continued its rule, the people demanded (and received) privilege after privilege; the greatest were the election of plebeian tribunes (see tribune) and the codification (c.450 B.C.) of the Twelve Tables. With the growth of the city, multiplication of consular duties called for new officials: quaestor, praetor, and censor. The three popular assemblies, or comitia, developed slowly, but they quietly abstracted legislative power from the patricians. The ancient senate, theoretically the supreme power of the state, became more and more powerful until in the 3d cent. B.C. it controlled the consuls completely.。

Although the Roman republic was never a true democracy, historians have modified the traditional view that it was the tool of a powerful aristocracy and have acknowledged that the system had open aspects beyond the control of the ruling class. It remains true, however, that it was under senatorial administration that Rome began its march to world supremacy and that in the end the senate was crushed under the weight of the huge problems of empire.。

The Subduing of Italy。

In the 4th cent. B.C., Rome extended its influence over W Latium and S Etruria; during the course of that century and the next, Rome came in full contact with Greek culture, which modified Roman life tremendously. The idea of the old Roman courage and morality, however, was kept alive by such staunch conservatives as Cato the Elder. The power of the city may be inferred from the tremendous impression the sack of Rome (390 B.C.) by the Gauls made in subsequent times.。

The Samnites were subdued in the wars dated conventionally 343–341 B.C., 326–304 B.C., and 298–290 B.C., and the inhabitants of Picenum, Umbria, Apulia, Lucania, and Etruria were pacified. The Roman policy in subduing Italy was that of a master toward slaves. Tarentum, besieged by the Romans, called for the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus; he won victories at Heraclea (280 B.C.) and Asculum (279 B.C.), but after a dispute with his Italian allies he returned to Greece, leaving the Romans masters of central and S Italy.。

Conquests Overseas and to the East。

Rome, previously a continental power, began to look seaward in the 3d cent. B.C. Sicily, a granary of the ancient world, was an obvious goal, but Rome's rapid conquests could not continue there without meeting the like ambitions of Carthage, which ruled the W Mediterranean. The Punic Wars were thus inevitable, and in this titanic struggle the fate of Carthage and the destiny of Rome were decided. Although Carthage had the great general Hannibal, Rome fought with the resources of Italy behind it and had such leaders as Scipio Africanus Major. Rome gained from the Punic Wars dominion over Spain, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the northern shores of Africa, indisputable hegemony in the Mediterranean, and an insatiable desire for conquest.。

With Carthage humbled, the Roman republic turned its attention eastward. Philip V of Macedon was defeated after two campaigns (215–205 B.C., 200–197 B.C.), and Antiochus III of Syria was conquered at Magnesia (190 B.C.); eventually the defeat of Perseus (171–168 B.C.) made Macedonia a Roman province. Greece did not become a Roman province, but the brief opposition of the Achaean League was disposed of, and the Greeks became subject to Rome. Egypt acknowledged vassalship to the republic in 168 B.C.。

Effects of Expansion。

The rapid expansion of Roman dominion, however, had terrible effects at home. The provinces were governed by the senate for the benefit not of Rome but of the senatorial class; enormous wealth (by graft and by trade) flowed into the hands of the senators, who used it exclusively to their own advantage. The equites (see knight), a class of financiers, came into its own through management of imperial trade. Class dissension was rife, and in spite of agrarian laws the masses were daily more dissatisfied. The slaves in Sicily rebelled twice (c.134–132 B.C., c.104–101 B.C.), and the Gracchus brothers in a political victory tried to make the populace more powerful, but such defiance was to no avail. Massacres and incredible barbarities disposed of the slaves' restlessness, and the Gracchi were assassinated (133 and 121 B.C.).。

Marius defeated Jugurtha (106 B.C.) and the Cimbri and the Teutons (101 B.C.), and he heralded a new era by definitively introducing Roman arms into Transalpine Gaul. Rome was forced by the Social War (90–88 B.C.) to extend citizenship widely in Italy, but the republic was nevertheless doomed. A slave revolt led by Spartacus was put down mercilessly. Marius, the idol of the populace, used proscription to rid himself of his foes, but Sulla, a conservative, destroyed Marius' party by the same method.。

Julius Caesar

After Sulla's retirement his lieutenant Pompey emerged as a popular champion. He abolished some of Sulla's reactionary measures, suppressed Mediterranean piracy, and made himself master of Rome. His defeat of Mithradates VI brought Pontus, Syria, and Phoenicia under Roman dominion.。

On Pompey's return from the East, he found an ally for his ambitions in Julius Caesar, a popular democratic leader of the best patrician blood. With Marcus Licinius Crassus to furnish the funds, Pompey and Caesar formed the First Triumvirate (60 B.C.), and Caesar departed to make himself immortal in the Gallic Wars. Within ten years Caesar and Pompey fell out; Pompey joined the senatorial party, and Caesar (as the champion of the people and of republican legality) led his devoted army against Pompey. Pharsalus was the result (48 B.C.), and Caesar was master of Rome.。

He governed through the old institutions, with wisdom and vigor. His territorial additions were the most important ever made, for his conquest and organization of Gaul placed Rome in the role of civilizer of barbarians as well as ruler of the older world. The age of Caesar was a great period in Roman culture, and the cosmopolitan Roman was considered the ideal. Greek was the language of much of the empire, and Greek literature became fashionable. Even more influential was Greek thought, which served to destroy Roman religion and to open the Romans to the Eastern cults, which were enormously popular for years. Cicero, an urbane lawyer and philosopher of broad culture, was typical of the period.。

At the death (44 B.C.) of Caesar, the territories ruled by Rome included Spain (except part of the northwest), Gaul, Italy, part of Illyria, Macedonia, Greece, W Asia Minor, Bithynia, Pontus, Cilicia, Syria, Cyrenaica, Numidia, and the islands of the sea, and Rome completely controlled Egypt and Palestine. The rule of Caesar marked an epoch, for it completed the destruction of the republic and laid the foundations of the empire.。

The Roman Empire。

Augustus and the Pax Romana。

Caesar's assassination brought anarchy, out of which the Second Triumvirate emerged with the rule of Octavian (later Augustus), Antony, and Lepidus. Octavian was Caesar's nephew, ward, and heir, and his true successor. At Actium (31 B.C.) he defeated Antony and Cleopatra and made the empire one. No change was made in the government, but Octavian received from the senate the title Augustus and from the people life tribuneship; this, with the governorship of all the provinces conferred by the senate, made him the real ruler. He was called imperator [commander] and princeps [leader] and is usually considered the first Roman emperor. (For a list of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to the fall of Rome and the years they reigned, see the table entitled Rulers of the Roman Empire.)。

Augustus organized provincial government and the army, rebuilt Rome, and patronized the arts and letters. His rule began a long period (200 years) of peace, called the Pax Romana. During this time the Roman Empire was the largest it would ever be; its boundaries included Armenia, middle Mesopotamia, the Arabian desert, the Red Sea, Nubia, the Sahara, the Moroccan mountain mass, the Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Sea, Scotland, the North Sea, the Rhine, the Danube, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus. Augustus' chief additions to the empire were a strip along the North Sea W of the Elbe and part of the Danubian area.。

The blessings of peace were great for the empire. The extensive system of Roman roads made transportation easier than it was again to be until the development of railroads. A postal service was developed closely tied in with the organization of the army. Commerce and industry were greatly developed, particularly by sea, over which grain ships carried food for Rome and the West from the ports of northern Africa. The Roman Empire became under Augustus one great nation. The enlarged view of the world made a great impression on Rome, where literary and artistic interests were of importance, although nearly always tending to imitation of Greece and of the East.。

Augustus died A.D. 14 and was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius; his general Germanicus Caesar fought fruitlessly in Germany. Caligula, who followed, was a cruel tyrant (A.D. 37–A.D. 41); he was succeeded by Claudius I (A.D. 41–A.D. 54), who was dominated by his wives, but during his rule half of Britain was conquered (A.D. 43). In his time Thrace, Lydia, and Judaea were made Roman provinces. His stepson Nero (A.D. 54–A.D. 68) was an unparalleled tyrant. In his reign occurred the great fire of Rome (A.D. 64), attributed (probably falsely) to Nero; it burnt everything between the Caelian, the Palatine, and the Esquiline, but it was a boon to the city, for Nero moved the population to the right bank of the Tiber, then very thinly populated, and rebuilt the region with broader streets and great buildings.。

At that time an entirely new element, Christianity, made itself felt in Rome. On Nero's orders a barbarous persecution took place in which many Christians died, among them St. Peter and St. Paul. Throughout the Roman Empire the Christians expanded steadily for the next centuries. Their conflict with the empire, which brought on them continual persecution, was chiefly a result of the Christian refusal to offer divine honors to the emperors. But Christianity penetrated the army and the royal household in spite of the constant danger of detection and persecution. There were many periods in the first three centuries when Christians worshiped openly, even in Rome, where the catacombs housed not only graves but also churches.。

With Nero the Julio-Claudian line ended. There was a brief struggle (see Galba; Otho; Vitellius) before Vespasian (A.D. 69–A.D. 79) became emperor. Under him his son Titus destroyed Jerusalem (A.D. 70); Titus then briefly succeeded his father. After his mild, rather benign rule, his brother Domitian (A.D. 81–A.D. 96), a despot and persecutor of Christians, gained the empire. In Domitian's reign Agricola conquered Britain almost entirely. Domitian was unsuccessful in his dealings with the Daci and finally bought them off. After Nerva came Trajan (A.D. 98–A.D. 117), one of the greatest of emperors. Trajan undertook great public works, defeated the Daci and established Roman colonies there (in what is now modern。

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