whereof-30

谁有英文版的房租合同？

培根 《论爱情》

The stage is more beholding to love, than the life of man. For as to the stage, love is ever matter of comedies, and now and then of tragedies; but in life it doth much mischief; sometimes like a siren, sometimes like a fury.舞台上的爱情生活比生活中的爱情要美好得多。因为在舞台上，爱情只是喜剧和悲剧的素材，而在人生中，爱情却常常招来不幸。它有时象那位诱惑人的魔女，有时又象那位复仇的女神。

You may observe, that amongst all the great and worthy persons (whereof the memory remaineth, either ancient or recent) there is not one, that hath been transported to the mad degree of love: which shows that great spirits, and great business, do keep out this weak passion. You must except, nevertheless, Marcus Antonius, the half partner of the empire of Rome, and Appius Claudius, the decemvir and lawgiver; whereof the former was indeed a voluptuous man, and inordinate; but the latter was an austere and wise man: and therefore it seems (though rarely) that love can find entrance, not only into an open heart, but also into a heart well fortified, if watch be not well kept.你可以看到，一切真正伟大的人物（无论是古人、今人，只要是其英名永铭于人类记忆中的），没有一个是因爱情而发狂的人。因为伟大的事业只有罗马的安东尼和克劳底亚是例外。前者本性就好色荒淫，然而后者却是严肃多谋的人。这说明爱情不仅会占领开旷坦阔的胸怀，有时也能闯入壁垒森严的心灵----假如手御不严的话。

It is a poor saying of Epicurus, Satis magnum alter alteri theatrum sumus; as if man, made for the contemplation of heaven, and all noble objects, should do nothing but kneel before a little idol, and make himself a subject, though not of the mouth (as beasts are), yet of the eye; which was given him for higher purposes.埃辟克拉斯曾说过一句笨话：“人生不过是一座大戏台。”似乎本应努力追求高尚事业的人类，却只应象玩偶般地逢场作戏。虽然爱情的奴隶并不同于那班只顾吃喝的禽兽，但毕竟也只是眼目色相的奴隶，而上帝赐人以眼睛本来是有更高尚的用途的。

It is a strange thing, to note the excess of this passion, and how it braves the nature, and value of things, by this; that the speaking in a perpetual hyperbole, is comely in nothing but in love. Neither is it merely in the phrase; for whereas it hath been well said, that the arch-flatterer, with whom all the petty flatterers have intelligence, is a man’s self; certainly the lover is more. For there was never proud man thought so absurdly well of himself, as the lover doth of the person loved; and therefore it was well said, That it is impossible to love, and to be wise. Neither doth this weakness appear to others only, and not to the party loved; but to the loved most of all, except the love be reciproque. For it is a true rule, that love is ever rewarded, either with the reciproque, or with an inward and secret contempt.过度的爱情追求，必然会降低人本身的价值。例如，只有在爱情中，才总是需要那种浮夸陷媚的词令。而在其他场合，同样的词令只能招人耻笑。古人有一句名言：“最大的奉承，人总是留给自己的。”----只有对情人的奉承要算例外。因为甚至最骄傲的人，也甘愿在情人面前自轻自贱。所以古人说得好：“就是神在爱情中也难保持聪明。”情人的这种弱点不仅在外人眼中是明显的，就是在被追求者的眼中也会很明显----除非她（他）也在追求他（她）。所以，爱情的代价就是如此，不能得到回爱，就会得到一种深藏于心的轻蔑，这是一条永真的定律。

By how much the more, men ought to beware of this passion, which loseth not only other things, but itself! As for the other losses, the poet’s relation doth well figure them: that he that preferred Helena, quitted the gifts of Juno and Pallas. For whosoever esteemeth too much of amorous affection, quitteth both riches and wisdom.由此可见，人们应当十分警惕这种感情。因为它不但会使人丧失其他，而且可以使人丧失自己本身。甚至其他方面的损失，古诗人早告诉我们，那追求海伦的人，是放弃了财富和智慧的。

This passion hath his floods, in very times of weakness; which are great prosperity, and great adversity; though this latter hath been less observed: both which times kindle love, and make it more fervent, and therefore show it to be the child of folly. They do best, who if they cannot but admit love, yet make it keep quarters; and sever it wholly from their serious affairs, and actions, of life; for if it check once with business, it troubles men's fortunes, and make men, that they can no ways be true to their own ends.当人心最软弱的时候，爱情最容易入侵。再就是人春风得意，忘乎所以的独守困窘，孤独凄时，虽然后者未必然得到爱情。人在这样的时候最容易跳进爱情的火焰，由此可见，“爱情”实在是“愚蠢”的儿子。但有一些人，即使心中有了爱，仍能约束它，使它不妨碍重大的事业。因为，爱情一旦干扰情绪，就会阻碍人坚定的奔向既定的目标。

I know not how, but martial men are given to love: I think, it is but as they are given to wine; for perils commonly ask to be paid in pleasures.我不懂是什么缘故，使许多军人更容易堕入情网，也许这正象他们嗜爱饮酒一样，是因为危险的生活更需要欢乐的补偿。

There is in man’s nature, a secret inclination and motion, towards love of others, which if it be not spent upon some one or a few, doth naturally spread itself towards many, and maketh men become humane and charitable; as it is seen sometime in friars.人心中可能普遍具有一种博爱倾向，若不集中于某个专一的对象身上，就必然施之于更广泛的大众，使他成为仁善的人，象有的僧侣那样。

Nuptial love maketh mankind; friendly love perfecteth it; but wanton love corrupteth, and embaseth it.夫妻的爱，使人类繁衍。朋友的爱，给人以帮助。但那荒淫纵欲的爱，却只会使人堕落毁灭啊！

请帮忙提供一个英文的保函，要比较正式的公文格式，英文的，谢谢：

LEASE CONTRACT 。

租 赁 合 同

No.编号： DATE日期: 。

Lessor (Hereafter referred to as "THE LESSOR")出租人（以下简称甲方）：

ID Card No.身份证(护照)号： TEL电话： Mail Add通讯地址.：

Lessee: (Hereafter referred to as "THE LESSEE")承租人（以下简称乙方）：

ID Card No.身份证(护照)号： TEL电话： Mail Add通讯地址：

This Lease has been mutual agreed and set up by THE LESSOR and THE LESSEE complying with The Lease or Rent Contract Law Of The People's Republic Of China and related regulations provided by the Tianjin government. 。

根据《中华人民共和国租赁合同法》甲乙双方在自愿、平等、互利的基础上，经协商一致，订立本合同。内容如下：

1：The property to be leased is described as出租物业: Location地点： Area面积：

2：Rental fees租金: 。

2.1：RMB________ per month.该房屋月租为人民币 元；大写：万 仟 佰 拾 元整。

2.2: Rental should be payable on ________ month base in advance. The first rental shall be paid before moving in and the following rental shall be received by within the ________ day of each succeeding months term. 。

租金每 个月付一次。具体付款日期: 前支付，甲方收到为准。

2.3：Any delayed of the rental shall be charged 0.2% of the monthly rental day by day as a penalty. Delayed payment more than 7 days shall be regarded as a breach of the contract, THE LESSOR shall have the right to take back the premises after a prior written notice to THE LESSEE, and THE LESSEE shall bear all the responsibilities caused by such breach. 。

乙方如逾期支付租金，每逾期一天，则乙方需按月租金的0.2%支付滞纳金，欠交租金超过七天，视同违约，甲方有权收回房屋，并由乙方承担一切违约责任。

2.4：Rental is to be paid in cash in RMB YUAN.THE LESSOR will make out receipt. 租金以人民币支付，甲方出具收据。

3: 押金Deposit:

3.1：At the time of signing of the contract, a deposit of months' equivalent rental RMB ______shall be paid by THE LESSEE in cash. 签约时，承租人须支付相当于 月房租的押金，即人民币元整。该押金不得冲抵房款。

3.2：The deposit shall be refundable after its expiration or early termination ( with same currency and with no interest thereupon ), providing all furnishings, contents and rental property are not subject to any loss of unusual damage, and all the various bills have been duly settled. 在合同到期或解约后, 甲方在乙方不拖欠任何费用和保持室内设施完好的情况下即返还押金。

4：租期Lease term: 。

4.1：From the date____/____/_____ to_____/______/_____ for continuous_________ months. If residence is overstayed, one monthrent is due to lessor, even if oversay is less than one month.。

乙方租用该房期限为 个月，即自 年 月 日至年 月 日止。超过该租期，不足一个月按一个月计算。

4.2：No early termination either by THE LESSOR or by THE LESSEE is allowed during the lease period, Otherwise, one month rental penalty for such early termination shall be paid to the counter party. 。

在租赁合同期内，甲乙双方任何一方未经对方同意中途擅自解除合同的，应向对方支付一个月的房租作为违约金。

4.3：At its expiration ,with a must of 30 days prior written notice to THE LESSOR, THE LESSEE retains his priority to renew this lease.THE LESSOR shall also inform THE LESSEE 30 days in advance whether the rental will be adjusted. If the occupants decide not to renewlease within THE LESSEE's term, THE LESSEE shall give a prior written notice to THE LESSOR.. 本合同期满时，乙方有优先续租权，但须提前30天给予甲方书面通知，取得甲方的同意，并签订续租合同。甲方亦须在30天前通知乙方是否变动租金。

4.4: If Force Majeure (such as earthquake, typhoon, flood, non-man-made fire, government order etc.)cause to terminating the contract, THE LESSEE and THE LESSOR should be free of duty. 。

因洪水、地震、或政府拆迁、征用等不可抗力原因，造成双方不得不中止合同，双方不承担违约责任，按实际天数计算房租。

4.5：In case that the property ownership is transferred during the lease, THE LESSEE has the right to continue to use the said premises according to the contract without any disturbance from THE LESSOR or any the third party. 。

在租赁期间，甲方的房屋所有权发生转移，乙方有权继续主张本合同的权利和义务，甲方及第三方不能损害乙方的权利和义务。

5：Lease Term租赁条件: 。

5.1: These premises are limited of residential use only by THE LESSEE, and are prohibited from registering as legal address for any company or agency, or using as public office. 乙方不得将该房屋用作公司或代表处的注册地址。

5.2：THE LESSEE shall not carry in the premises any unlawful of illegal activities which are not allowed according to China laws and the leasing regulations of the government. Otherwise, THE LESSOR shall have the right to take back the premises after a prior written notice to THE LESSEE. 。

乙方不得在出租房屋内进行违反中国法律及政府对出租房屋用途有关规定的行为，否则甲方有权在书面通知乙方后收回房屋。

5.3：THE LESSEE shall not partly or totally sublet, sell, lend, mortgage, exchange, exchange the said premises or use it so as to raise any joint-venture or become a certain shareholder without the written permission from THE LESSOR. Otherwise, THE LESSOR can terminate the contract and confiscate the deposit. THE LESSEE and the third party shall return the property unconditionally to THE LESSOR. THE LESSEE shall bear all the responsibilities caused herefrom. 。

未经甲方书面同意，乙方不得将出租房屋转租、分租、转让、转借、联营、入股、抵押或与他人调剂交换使用，否则甲方有权终止合同并 。

没收押金。乙方及第三方必须无条件退还出租房，且由乙方承担一切违约责任。

5.4：THE LESSEE should pay in time the water, gas, electricity , heating fee, the Tel-Bills, TV receiving , managing fee and the lease related invoice taxes on actual user basis. Delayed payment more than 15 days shall be regarded as a breach of the contract, THE LESSOR shall have the right to take back the premises after a prior written notice to THE LESSEE, and THE LESSEE shall bear all the responsibilities caused by such breach. 。

乙方应按时支付因租用该出租房屋而产生的有关费用，包括：水费、电费、煤气费、暖气费、存车费、电话费和有线电视收视费、物业管 。

理费、发票税金等费用。如经甲方催促，乙方仍欠交费用，超过15天，甲方有权收回房屋，并由乙方承担一切违约责任。

5.5：The damage of the premises or the fittings that is within the control of THE LESSEE shall be borne by THE LESSEE, 。

and THE LESSEE shall contact the management office or THE LESSOR instantly. If THE LESSEE refuses to compensate or to contact the management office to repair, THE LESSOR shall have the right to repair and charge the cost from THE LESSEE. The cost of repairs to the said premises, if damaged by Force Majeure (such as earthquake, typhoon, flood, non-man-made fire, etc.), reasonable wear and tear or by accidents beyond THE LESSEE's control, should be borne by THE LESSOR. 。

因乙方使用不当，房屋及其内的设施出现损坏，乙方应及时联络管理机构进行维修，并负担有关维修费用。若乙方拒不维修或赔偿，甲方有权代为维修，维修所需费用由乙方承担；但由于不可抗力，如地震、台风、洪水、非人为的火灾等，自然损耗或乙方以外的原因造成的损坏，由甲方承担有关费用。

5.6：THE LESSEE, upon written permission of THE LESSOR, may make additions or alterations dealing with water, electricity supply or fire protection, at his own expense, subject to necessary permits or licenses required by the authorities concerned and under the supervision of THE LESSOR. No structural alterations can be removed from the premises, upon expiration or termination of this contract. No reimbursement for said additions, and any structural damage to the premises must be repaired or compensated by THE LESSEE. 。

租赁期内，乙方对出租房屋进行装修或增加设施须征得甲方同意并经政府有关部门批准，并由甲方执行监理，所需费用由乙方承担。双方解约时，乙方不能移走自行添加的结构性设施，甲方亦不必对上述添加设施进行补偿。如损坏原有之设施，由乙方负责修复或赔偿。

5.7：THE LESSEE shall obey the regulations made by the management office such as not to litter or take any private use of public area and etc. 租用房屋之内部卫生，设施保养、维护均由乙方负责。乙方不得占用公共场所及通道作任何用途。

5.8：THE LESSEE shall have the right to move in after paying off the deposit and the first term of rental. 。

乙方在付清押金，首期租金后即可入住。

5.9：In case there is a cut of water, power or any other hitch which is caused by the accident beyond the control of THE LESSEE, THE LESSOR shall take the responsibility to assist and push the authorities concerned to repair and resume it as soon as possible. 若由于甲方以外原因导致出租房屋停水，停电或其他故障，甲方有义务敦促并协助有关部门抢修，使之尽快得以恢复。

5.10：THE LESSEE shall not store in or out of the premises any inflammable or dangerous thing, nor let any corrosive or dirty thing come out of the premises. 。

乙方须做好安全及防火工作，不得在房屋内外存储或排放有害，腐蚀性或污臭物质，严禁存储易燃，易爆品。

5.11：Insurance: THE LESSOR will retain insurance on his property and belongings, and THE LESSEE will be responsible for his own property brought into or kept in proximity of the premises. If there is anything lost, THE LESSOR shall assist to conduct investigations, but has no responsibility to compensate it. 。

乙方须负责好自己带来的财物，妥善保管，如有意外，甲方可协助调查，但不负责赔偿。

5.12：THE LESSEE shall return the property intact to THE LESSOR at the expiration of the contract if there is no renewal thereupon. THE LESSOR shall have the right to take any effective measures to take back the premises in case that THE LESSEE refuses to move out at the expiration of the contract. 。

租赁期满，若甲、乙双方未达成续租协议，乙方应于租期届满时或之前迁离出租房屋并将钥匙及房屋按租用时之状况归还甲方。若乙方逾期不迁离或不归还出租房屋，则甲方有权采取有效措施收回出租房屋并另行处理。

5.13：THE LESSOR or his nominees, with the pre-notice and consent to THE LESSEE, shall have the right to inspect or repair the premises at any reasonable time (except for emergency). If THE LESSEE had any trouble ,which was foreign to THE LESSOR ,with the third party。在双方合同期间或解除合同后，乙方与第三方的任何纠纷都与甲方无关，乙方应自行解决。

6：Other conditions其它条件: 。

6.1：Three copies of the lease will be drawn, and remain in the possession of THE LESSOR , THE LESSEE and THE WITNESS. 本合同一式三份，甲、乙双方各持一份，见证方一份，具有同等法律效力。

6.3：The contract is drawn in both Chinese and English versions. Chinese versions will have validity finally in law. The contract shall come into force on the date that the lessor receives the deposit and the frist term of rental. 。

本合同为中英文版本，中英文具有同等效力。发生争议，以中文为最终解释。本合同自出租人收到首期房租和押金后生效。

6.4：The appendix（Property list ） is an indivisible part of this contract.合同的附件是本合同不可分割的组成部分。

Signatures or official marks签章: 。

THE LESSOR甲方： THE LESSEE乙方：

THE WITNESS见证方 。

(WRITING-BUILDING) LEASE CONTRACT(no.2)。

CONTRACT NO.: DATE:。

Lessor:

(Hereafter referred to as "THE LESSOR")。

Mail Add.:

TEL:

ID Card No.:

Lessee:

(Hereafter referred to as "THE LESSEE")。

Mail Add.:

TEL:

Passport No.:

This Lease has been mutual agreed and set up by THE LESSOR and THE LESSEE complying with The 。

Economical Contract Law Of The People's Republic Of China and related regulations provided by 。

the Tianjin government.。

1.The property to be leased is described as:。

1.1.Location:

1.2.Area:

1.3.<<_____________ Property List>>。

2.Rental fees:

2.1.RMB/US\$________ per month, and payable on ________ month base in advance. 。

2.2. The first rental shall be paid before moving in and the following rental shall be received by within the ________ day of each succeeding months term.。

2.3. Any delayed of the rental shall be charged 2% of the monthly rental day by day as a penalty. Delayed payment more than 7 days shall be regarded as a breach of the contract, THE LESSOR shall have the right to take back the premises after a prior written notice to THE LESSEE, and THE LESSEE shall bear all the responsibilities caused by such breach.。

2.4.Rental is to be paid in cash in RMB YUAN/US\$.The lessor will make out receipt.。

3.Deposit:

3.1 At the time of signing of the contract, a deposit of two months' equivalent rental RMB/US\$ 。

______shall be paid by the lessee in cash . This deposit will be adjusted against the rent for 。

the last two month of the lease term and the lessee shall not be required to pay the rent 。

separately for the last two months of the lease term.。

4.Lease term:

4.1 From the date____/____/_____ to_____/______/_____ for continuous_________ months.。

4.2 No early termination either by THE LESSOR or by THE LESSEE is allowed during the first year lease period, Otherwise, one month rental penalty for such early termination shall be paid to the counter party. After one year, Lessee may termination lease contract by written notice to THE LESSOR or is necessary advance two month.。

4.3 At its expiration ,with a must of 60 days prior written notice to THE LESSOR, THE LESSEE retains his priority to renew this lease.After getting the permission from THE LESSOR ,THE LESSEE shall sign a new lease contract. THE LESSOR shall also inform THE LESSEE 60 days in advance whether the rental will be adjusted.。

4.4 If the occupants are transferred within THE LESSEE's term, THE LESSEE shall give a prior written notice to THE LESSOR.。

4.5 In case that the property ownership is transferred during the lease, THE LESSEE has the right to continue to use the said premises according to the contract without any disturbance from THE LESSOR or any the third party.。

5.Tax:All the leasing related taxes shall be paid by THE LESSOR.。

6.

6.1 These premises are limited of residential use only by THE LESSEE, and are prohibited from registering as legal address for any company or agency, or using as public office. 。

6.2 THE LESSEE shall not carry in the premises any unlawful of illegal activities which are not allowed according to China laws and the leasing regulations of the government. Otherwise, THE LESSOR shall have the right to take back the premises after a prior written notice to THE LESSEE.。

6.3 THE LESSEE shall not partly or totally sublet, sell, lend, mortgage, exchange, exchange the said premises or use it so as to raise any joint-venture or become a certain shareholder without the written permission from THE LESSOR. Otherwise, THE LESSOR can terminate the contract and confiscate the deposit. THE LESSEE and the third party shall return the property unconditionally to THE LESSOR. THE LESSEE shall bear all the responsibilities caused herefrom.。

6.4 THE LESSEE should pay in time the water, gas, electricity ,TV receiving , heating fee and the Tel-Bills on actual user basis.。

6.5 The damage of the premises or the fittings that is within the control of THE LESSEE shall be borne by THE LESSEE, and THE LESSEE shall contact the management office or THE LESSOR instantly. If THE LESSEE refuses to compensate or to contact the management office to repair, THE LESSOR shall have the right to repair and charge the cost from THE LESSEE. The cost of repairs to the said premises, if damaged by Force Majeure (such as earthquake, typhoon, flood, non-man-made fire, etc.), reasonable wear and tear or by accidents beyond THE LESSEE's control, should be borne by THE LESSOR.。

6.6 THE LESSEE, upon written permission of THE LESSOR, may make additions or alterations dealing with water, electricity supply or fire protection, at his own expense, subject to necessary permits or licenses required by the authorities concerned and under the supervision of THE LESSOR. No structural alterations can be removed from the premises, upon expiration or termination of this contract. No reimbursement for said additions, and any structural damage to the premises must be repaired or compensated by THE LESSEE.。

6.7 The management office entrusted by THE LESSOR shall take in total charge of the management of the premises, including public security, public cleaning (The indoor cleaning shall be done by THE LESSEE.), public maintenance, indoor repairs and other appointed services, THE LESSEE shall obey the regulations made by the management office such as not to litter or take any private use of public area and etc.。

6.8 THE LESSEE shall have the right to move in after paying off the deposit and the first term of rental.。

6.9 In case there is a cut of water, power or any other hitch which is caused by the accident beyond the control of THE LESSEE, THE LESSOR shall take the responsibility to assist and push the authorities concerned to repair and resume it as soon as possible.。

6.10 THE LESSEE shall not store in or out of the premises any inflammable or dangerous thing, nor let any corrosive or dirty thing come out of the premises.。

6.11 Insurance: THE LESSOR will retain insurance on his property and belongings, and THE LESSEE will be responsible for his own property brought into or kept in proximity of the premises. If there is anything lost, THE LESSOR shall assist to conduct investigations, but has no responsibility to compensate it.。

6.12 THE LESSEE shall return the property intact to THE LESSOR at the expiration of the contract if there is no renewal thereupon. THE LESSOR shall have the right to take any effective measures to take back the premises in case that THE LESSEE refuses to move out at the expiration of the contract.。

7.Other conditions:。

7.1 The occupants of these premises are aware of complying with the local regulations to complete all the necessary residential formalities with the local relevant authorities during the period of their staying in these premises.。

7.2 THE LESSOR or his nominees, with the pre-notice and consent to THE LESSEE, shall have the right to inspect or repair the premises at any reasonable time (except for emergency).。

7.3 THE LESSOR and THE LESSEE can make any supplementary to the contract under mutual agreement.。

7.4 THE LESSOR and THE LESSEE may consult with each other to reach unanimity or sue each other in a law court in case of any dispute.。

7.5 The contract is drawn in both Chinese and English versions. Both the versions will have equal validity in law.。

7.6 Three copies of the lease will be drawn, and remain in the possession of THE LESSOR , THE LESSEE and THE WITNESS.。

7.7 The contract shall come into force on the date of signature.。

7.8 The appendix is an indivisible part of this contract.。

Appendix 1: <<______________ Property List>>。

2.photocopy of the passport of lessee。

3.photocopy of ID card of the lessor and the copy of the ownership of license。

8. Signatures or official marks:。

看下～

http://www.junjing.net/forum/thread.jspa?threadID=54648。

能否介绍一下英语简史？

注：此保函以来访人公司名义发出。

To: XX

From: 公司名称

Date: 日期

Dear Sir or Madam,。

XX is [职位position] of our company. He himself (or She herself) will cover all the expenses (include living, travelling, insurance expenses) in China. 。

We guarantee that he (or she) would obey all the Chinese laws and regulations and leave China on time. If there are voilations, you shall be entitled to pursue our company's liability for damages caused by the voilations.。

Name Sex Position Date of Birth Passport Number 需要写明来访人个人信息。

[ ] [M/F] [ ] [ ] [ ]。

Yours sincerely,。

Signature of the legal representative （法人代表签名）

Company Seal （公司盖章）

英语的起源

一 英语的“家谱”

英语是印欧 (1ndo-European)语系。印欧语系是世界上最大的语系，包括欧洲、美洲和亚洲的大部分语言。讲印欧诸种语言的总人数约有十八亿七千五百万，占世界总人口的一半左右。早在1786年，英国梵文（Sanskrit)学者威廉·琼斯爵士 (Sir William Jones) 就指出：欧洲、印度、波斯等地的大多数语言，包括古希腊语、古拉丁语及古印度语属于同一“家族”。

原始印欧人是什么样的人? 他们居住在何方? 他们的语言究竞是什么样子的? 对这些问题，我们今天仍缺乏文献的考证。但是通过长时期的研究，语言学家们得出了探索性的结论他们发现：属于印欧语系的许多语种都有表示“冬天”、“雪”和“寒冷”等意义的词，这说明原始印欧语最初是在气候比较冷的地一带使用的。另一方面，某些热带地区动植物名称的词，如“狮子”、“大象”、“稻米”、“竹”、“棕榈树”等，在原始印欧语中是不存在的；而印欧语系各语种中却都有表示“白杨”、“栎树”、“柳树”、“白桦”、“熊”、“狼”、“羊”、“鹰”、“蜜蜂”等动植物名称的相似词。通过这样的探索和研究，许多人认为，当人类进入新石器时代，欧洲中东部曾居隹着一些游牧部落，他们饲养着象羊、狗、奶牛和马这样的家畜，会使用马和简陋的马车，并能够驰骋于一望无际的原野上。这些游牧部落就是原始印欧人，他们用于交际的语言就是原始印欧语。大约在公元前3500年至公元前2500年间，这些原始印欧人开始迁徒。有些向西移动，有些向东移动，而有些则向南移动，到达今天的南亚次大陆。这些部落的大迁徒导致印欧语系的逐步形成。古印度语与古代欧洲语言之所以非常相近，其历史根源即在于此。

印欧语系包括：（一）印度语族(Indic);（二）．伊朗语族(Iranian);(三)斯拉夫语族（Slavic）,(四)波罗的话族（Baltic）,（五）日耳曼语族（Germanic）,（六）拉丁语族（亦称罗曼语族[Romance]）, （七）凯尔特语族（Celtic）,（八）希腊语族；（九）阿尔巴尼亚语（Albanian）,（十）亚美尼亚语族（Armenian）, （十一）吐火罗语族（Tocharian;Tokharian）（十二）赫梯语族（Hittite）。日耳曼语族是一个比较大的语族。它又分为三个语支：(一)东日耳曼语支（EastGermanic）主要以现已绝迹的哥特语（Gothic）为代表；（二）北日耳曼语支（North Germanic）,主要以古北欧语（Oid Norse）为代表，包括今日的挪威语（Norwegian）、冰岛语（Icelandic）、瑞典语和丹麦语等；（三）西日耳曼语支（West Germanic）包括低地德语（Low German） 今日的荷兰语（Dutch）、高地德语（High German）、英语、弗里西亚语（Frisian）佛兰芒语（Flemish）等。因此，我们说：英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西日耳曼语支。

二 英语的形成

英国南面隔英吉利海峡（the English Channel）、多佛尔海峡（the Straits of Dover）与法国相望，东面和东南面隔北海(the North Sea)与荷兰、比利时、丹麦、挪威遥对。距 欧洲大陆最窄处的多佛尔海峡仅三十公里宽。英国的领土主要包括大不列颠岛和爱尔兰岛东北部。大不列颠岛包括三个地区：英格兰占南部和中部，威尔士占西部山地半岛，苏格兰占北部；其中以英格兰最为重要。大不列颠岛是欧洲第一大岛，海岸非常曲折，长达一万一千四百五十公里。英语就是在这样的地理环境中形成的。为了说明英语的起源，我们有必要回顾一下英语形之前的英国史前史。文物考查已经证明，古代印欧游牧部落西移之前今天的不列颠诸岛上已居住着旧石器人(Paleolithic Man)。那时，不列颠诸岛和欧洲大陆是连成一片的，英国和法国之间还没有今天的英吉利海峡和多佛尔海峡，莱茵河(the Rhine)与泰晤士河(the Thames)之间尚由其支流相接、今天的英国仍属欧洲大陆的一部分。大约在距今九千年的时候；由于地壳的变迁，大不列颠诸岛从欧洲大陆分离出来。所以史前的旧石器人能够在不列颠定居下来并不足为怪。曾任过英国首相的温斯顿·邱召尔Sir Winston Churchill）(1874?/FONT>1965)在其《说英语的民族史》（History of the English Speaking Peoples）一书中，曾这样描写居住在不列颠的旧石器人：很明显，那些赤身裸体或只披着兽皮的男人和女人或觅食于原始密林之中，或涉猎于沼泽、草滩至于他们所说的语言，尚无史料可查。大约在公元前3000年，伊比利亚人（Iberians）从地中海地区来到不列颠岛定居。他们给不列颠带来了新石器（Neolithic）文化，同时征服了先前在那儿居住的旧石器人。大约从公元前500年开始，凯尔特人；（Celts）从欧洲大陆进犯并占领了不列颠诸岛。凯尔特人最初居住在今天德国南部地区，他们是欧洲最早学会制造和使用铁器和金制装饰品的民族；在征服不列颠之前，他们曾征服了今天的法国、西班牙：葡萄牙、意大利等地区；来到不列颠后，一部分凯尔特人在今天的爱尔兰和苏格兰定居下来，其余的一部分占领了今天的英格兰的南部和东部。每到一处，他们都对伊比利亚人进行残酷的杀戳。凯尔特人讲凯尔特语。今天居住在苏格兰北部和西部山地的盖尔人（Gaels）仍使用这种语言。在英语形成之前凯尔特语是在不列颠岛上所能发现的唯一具有史料依据的最早的格言。 公元前55年的夏天，罗马帝国的恺撒大帝（Julius Caesar）在征服高卢（Gaul）之后来到不列颠。那时，他的目的未必是想征服不列颠，而是想警告凯尔特人不要支持那些居住在高占的、正受罗马人奴役的凯尔特同族人。恺撒大帝的这次‘不列颠之行’并没有给罗马帝国带来什么好处，相反却在一定程度上降低了他的威信。第二年，即公元前54年的夏天，恺撒大帝第二次亲临不列颠。这次，他在不列颠岛东南部站稳了脚跟，并与当地的凯尔特人发生了一些冲突。恺撒大帝虽然取胜，但并没有能使凯尔特人屈服。不久，他又回到了高卢；在以后的大约一百年间，罗马帝国并没有对不列颠构成很大的威胁。 英国历史上的真正的“罗马人的征服”(Roman Conquest)是在公元后43年开始的。当时罗马皇帝克罗迪斯(Claudius)率领四万人马，用了三年时间终于征服了不列颠岛的中部和中南部随后，整个的英格兰被罗马牢牢控制了。，随着军事占领，罗马文化与风格习惯渗入不列颠。罗马人的服装、装饰品、陶器和玻璃器皿很快在不列颠得到推广；社会生活开始：“罗马化”这必然导致拉丁语在不列颠的传播。在以胜利者自居的罗马人看来，凯尔特人无疑是“低贱的”，凯尔特语自然不能登“大雅之堂”那时，在不列颠，官方用语、法律用语、商业用语等均是拉丁语；拉丁语成了上层凯尔特人的第二语言。这就是凯尔特语词汇为什么很少能幸存下来的历史原因。在今日英语中，只是在一些地名和河流名称方面还保留着凯尔特的词汇成分。例如the Thames ,the Cam,the Dee ,the Avon , the Esk , the Exe , the Stour , the Aire , the Derwent , the Ouse , the Severn , the Tees , the Trent , the Wye等，均是凯尔特人命名的河流。在Duncombe, Winchcombe, Holcome, Cumberland, Coombe 等地名中，也可看到凯尔特语cumb (=deep valley::深谷）一词的成分，在Torcross , Torquay,Torrington等地名中，尚保留着凯尔特语torr (=high rock or peak;高岩或山顶）一词的成分。英国著名城市多尔佛（Dover）、约克(York)的名称也源于凯尔特语。罗马人占领不列颠长达四百年，直到公元407年，罗马人才因罗马帝国内外交困不得不开始撤离不列颠。

大约在公元449年，居住在西北欧的三个日耳曼部族侵犯不列颠。他们是盎格鲁（Angles）、撒克逊人（Saxons）和朱特人（Jutes）他们乘船横渡北海，借罗马帝国衰落、自顾不暇之机‘一举侵入大不列颠诸岛。他们遭到凯尔特人的顽强抵抗，征服过程拖延了一个半世纪之久：到了公元六世纪末，大不列颠请岛上原先的居民凯尔特人几乎灭绝，幸存者或逃入山林．或沦为奴隶。这就是英国历史上发生的“日耳曼人征服”，亦称“条顿人征服”Teutonic Conquest）。这次外来入侵．对英语的形成起了十分关键的作用。

盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人属古代日耳曼人。分市在北欧日德兰半岛、丹麦诸岛、德国西北沿海一带。在罗马帝国时期，他们往往统称为“蛮族部落”。他们从事畜牧和狩猎，过着半游牧的生活，且很早就知道农耕。他们的土地是氏族的公有财产，农业经营带有原始的流动性质。随着社会的发展，氏族公社逐渐解体，出现了氏族贵族和军事首领。他们的财富和权势在频繁的掠夺中剧增。军事首领名义上是由民众大会推选产生的，实际上都出于同一家族。恩格斯曾把这种氏族部落的管理制度称作军事民主制；他这样写道：“其所以称为军事民主制，是因为战争以及进行战争的组织现在已成为民族生活的正常职能。邻人的财富刺激了各民族的贪欲。这些民族把获得财富看成是最重要的生活目的之一。他们是野蛮人。进行掠夺在他们看来是比进行创造性劳动更容易，甚至更荣誉的事情。以前进行战争，只是为了对侵犯进行报复，或者是为了扩大已经感到不够的领上；观在进行战争，则纯粹是为了掠夺，战争成为经常的职业了。“ 这些所谓的‘蛮族”，在摧毁当时罗马帝国的奴隶制，以及推动西欧封建制度的诞生过程中，起过十分重要的作用。征服不列颠后，盎格鲁人主要占领了洪伯河（the Humber）以北地区；撒克逊人主要占领了泰晤士河以南地区；朱特人主要盘踞在英格兰东南端的肯特（Kent） 和南汉普郡（Southern Hampshire）；以及位于英格兰之南、靠近今天的朴次茅斯(Portsmouth)的怀特岛（the Isle of Wight），形成许多小国。公元七世纪初，这些小园合并为七个王国：南部有撒克逊人的威塞克斯（Wessex）、萨塞克斯(Sussex)和埃塞克斯(Essex)；东北部和中部有盎格鲁人的梅尔西亚(Mercia)、诺森伯里亚（Northumbria），和东盎格里亚(East Anglia)；东南部有朱特人的肯特(Kent)王国。各国竞相争雄，达两百年之久；在英国历史上称为“七国时代”(the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy)。这三个日耳曼部族虽然有各自的方言，但这些方言均属低地西日耳曼语(Low West Germanic)。有许多共同之处．因此三个部落在语言方面基本上是相通的。他们都使用一种叫做茹尼克（Runic）的文字。这种文字是古代日耳曼各民族通用的文字．它的字母主要由直线组成，以便于刻在木头或石块上，是一种由古希腊语和拉丁语发展起来的北欧碑文字。随着人类社会的发展，盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人逐渐形成统一的英吉利民族．他们各自使用的方言也逐渐溶合，出现了一种新的语言枣盎格鲁撒克逊语(Anglo-Saxon)。这就是古英语。它是在特定的地理和历史环境中，经过一系列民族迁移与征服的过程所形成的。

那么English和England的名称是如何来的呢？原来，凯尔特人将征服他们的盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人习惯地统称为Saxons(撒克逊人)。早期拉丁语学者仿照凯尔特人的习惯．也将这三个日耳曼部族称作Saxones．并将他们征服的不列颠称作Saxonia。到了公元七世纪． 由于用森伯利亚王国和梅尔西亚王国在政治上和文化上的影响剧增，而在这棿�ň酉吕吹闹饕�前桓衤橙耍��栽缙诶�⊙д哂殖S?/FONT>Angli和Anglia指所有的三个部族和他们在不列颠所占有的地盘。随后,Angli和Anglia在拉丁语著作中分别代替了Saxones和Saxonia。到了公元700年所有的人都把当时通行在不列颠岛上的语言称作Englisc（盎格鲁人一直就是这样称呼其使用的语言的)，三个入侵的日耳曼部族则统称为Angelcynn(=kin of the Angles即“盎格鲁人的家族”)到了公元1000年整个国家则被称作Englaland (=land of the Angles盎格鲁人的土地)。由于语言内部在发音和拼写方面发生了演变Englisc和Englaland才变成了今天的English和England。

在追溯英语的历史发展时，我们通常将它分为三个时期：（一）古英语(Old English)，从公元450年至1150年；(二)中古英语(Middle English)，从公元1150年至1500年；，（三）现代英语(Modern English)，从1500年至今。为便于研究，我们常把1500?/FONT>1700年的英语称作“早期现代英语”(Early Modern English)，1700年至今的英语称作“后期现代英语”(Later Modern English)。这样的分期当然不是绝对的，但它有助于我们对英语历史发展全过程的了解和研究。

原文地址：http://qianchusai.com/whereof-30.html